Ykhjuy

State of Texas
Flag Seal
Nickname(s): The Lone Star State
Motto(s): Friendship
State song(s): "Texas, Our Texas"
Official language	No official language (see Languages spoken in Texas)
Spoken languages	Predominantly English; Spanish is spoken by a sizable minority[1]
Demonym	Texan Texian (archaic) Tejano (usually only used for Hispanics)
Capital	Austin
Largest city	Houston
Largest metro	Dallas–Fort Worth Metroplex
Area	Ranked 2nd
• Total	268,581[2] sq mi (696,241 km2)
• Width	773[3] miles (1,244 km)
• Length	790 miles (1,270 km)
• % water	2.5
• Latitude	25° 50′ N to 36° 30′ N
• Longitude	93° 31′ W to 106° 39′ W
Population	Ranked 2nd
• Total	28,304,596 (2017 est.)[4]
• Density	108/sq mi  (40.6/km2) Ranked 26th
• Median household income	$56,473[5] (26th)
Elevation
• Highest point	Guadalupe Peak[6][7][8] 8,751 ft (2667.4 m)
• Mean	1,700 ft  (520 m)
• Lowest point	Gulf of Mexico[7] Sea level
Before statehood	Republic of Texas
Admission to Union	December 29, 1845 (28th)
Governor	Greg Abbott (R)
Lieutenant Governor	Dan Patrick (R)
Legislature	Texas Legislature
• Upper house	Senate
• Lower house	House of Representatives
U.S. Senators	John Cornyn (R) Ted Cruz (R)
U.S. House delegation	25 Republicans 11 Democrats (list)
Time zones
• Majority of state	Central: UTC −6/−5
• El Paso, Hudspeth, and northwestern Culberson counties	Mountain: UTC −7/−6
ISO 3166	US-TX
Abbreviations	TX, Tex.
Website	texas.gov

Texas state symbols
The Flag of Texas
The Seal of Texas
Living insignia
Bird	Northern mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos)
Fish	Guadalupe bass (Micropterus treculii)
Flower	Bluebonnet (Lupinus spp., namely Texas bluebonnet, L. texensis)
Insect	Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus)
Mammal	Texas longhorn, nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus)
Reptile	Texas horned lizard (Phrynosoma cornutum)
Tree	Pecan (Carya illinoinensis)
Inanimate insignia
Food	Chili
Instrument	Guitar
Shell	Lightning whelk (Busycon perversum pulleyi)
Ship	USS Texas
Slogan	The Friendly State
Soil	Houston Black
Sport	Rodeo
Other	Molecule: Buckyball (For more, see article)
State route marker
State quarter
Released in 2004
Lists of United States state symbols

Texas (/ˈtɛksəs/, locally /ˈtɛksɪz/;^[9]Spanish: Texas or Tejas [ˈtexas]) is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population. Geographically located in the South Central region of the country, Texas shares borders with the U.S. states of Louisiana to the east, Arkansas to the northeast, Oklahoma to the north, New Mexico to the west, and the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the southwest, while the Gulf of Mexico is to the southeast.

Houston is the most populous city in Texas and the fourth largest in the U.S., while San Antonio is the second-most populous in the state and seventh largest in the U.S. Dallas–Fort Worth and Greater Houston are the fourth and fifth largest metropolitan statistical areas in the country, respectively. Other major cities include Austin, the second-most populous state capital in the U.S., and El Paso. Texas is nicknamed "The Lone Star State" to signify its former status as an independent republic, and as a reminder of the state's struggle for independence from Mexico. The "Lone Star" can be found on the Texas state flag and on the Texan state seal.^[10] The origin of Texas's name is from the word taysha, which means "friends" in the Caddo language.^[11]

Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, Texas contains diverse landscapes common to both the U.S. Southern and Southwestern regions.^[12] Although Texas is popularly associated with the U.S. southwestern deserts, less than 10% of Texas's land area is desert.^[13] Most of the population centers are in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests, and the coastline. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, and finally the desert and mountains of the Big Bend.

The term "six flags over Texas"^{[note 1]} refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas. France held a short-lived colony. Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845,^[14] Texas joined the union as the 28th state. The state's annexation set off a chain of events that led to the Mexican–American War in 1846. A slave state before the American Civil War, Texas declared its secession from the U.S. in early 1861, and officially joined the Confederate States of America on March 2 of the same year. After the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation.

Historically four major industries shaped the Texas economy prior to World War II: cattle and bison, cotton, timber, and oil.^[15] Before and after the U.S. Civil War the cattle industry, which Texas came to dominate, was a major economic driver for the state, thus creating the traditional image of the Texas cowboy. In the later 19th century cotton and lumber grew to be major industries as the cattle industry became less lucrative. It was ultimately, though, the discovery of major petroleum deposits (Spindletop in particular) that initiated an economic boom which became the driving force behind the economy for much of the 20th century. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy and high tech industry in the mid-20th century. As of 2015, it is second on the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with 54.^[16] With a growing base of industry, the state leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace, and biomedical sciences. Texas has led the U.S. in state export revenue since 2002, and has the second-highest gross state product. If Texas were a sovereign state, it would be the 10th largest economy in the world.

Etymology

The name Texas, based on the Caddo word táyshaʼ (/t'ajʃaʔ/) "friend", was applied, in the spelling Tejas or Texas,^[17] by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves, specifically the Hasinai Confederacy,^[18] the final -s representing the Spanish plural.^[19]
The Mission San Francisco de los Tejas was completed near the Hasinai village of Nabedaches in May 1690, in what is now Houston County, East Texas.^[20]

During Spanish colonial rule, in the 18th century, the area was known as
Nuevo Reino de Filipinas "New Kingdom of the Philippines", or as provincia de los Tejas "province of the Tejas",^[21] later also provincia de Texas (or de Tejas), "province of Texas".^[22][23]
It was incorporated as provincia de Texas into the Mexican Empire in 1821, and declared a republic in 1836.
The Royal Spanish Academy recognizes both spellings, Tejas and Texas, as Spanish-language forms of the name of the US State of Texas.^[24]

The English pronunciation with /ks/ is unetymological, and based in the value of the letter x in historical Spanish orthography. Alternative etymologies of the name advanced in the late 19th century connected the Spanish teja "rooftile", the plural tejas being used to designate indigenous Pueblo settlements.^[25] A 1760s map by Jacques-Nicolas Bellin shows a village named Teijas on Trinity River, close to the site of modern Crockett.^[25]

Geography

Texas is the second-largest U.S. state, after Alaska, with an area of 268,820 square miles (696,200 km²). Though 10% larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile and Zambia.

Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers. The Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south. The Red River forms a natural border with Oklahoma and Arkansas to the north. The Sabine River forms a natural border with Louisiana to the east. The Texas Panhandle has an eastern border with Oklahoma at 100° W, a northern border with Oklahoma at 36°30' N and a western border with New Mexico at 103° W. El Paso lies on the state's western tip at 32° N and the Rio Grande.^[26]

With 10 climatic regions, 14 soil regions and 11 distinct ecological regions, regional classification becomes problematic with differences in soils, topography, geology, rainfall, and plant and animal communities.^[27] One classification system divides Texas, in order from southeast to west, into the following: Gulf Coastal Plains, Interior Lowlands, Great Plains, and Basin and Range Province.

The Gulf Coastal Plains region wraps around the Gulf of Mexico on the southeast section of the state. Vegetation in this region consists of thick piney woods. The Interior Lowlands region consists of gently rolling to hilly forested land and is part of a larger pine-hardwood forest.

The Great Plains region in central Texas is in spans through the state's panhandle and Llano Estacado to the state's hill country near Austin. This region is dominated by prairie and steppe. "Far West Texas" or the "Trans-Pecos" region is the state's Basin and Range Province. The most varied of the regions, this area includes Sand Hills, the Stockton Plateau, desert valleys, wooded mountain slopes and desert grasslands.

Texas has 3,700 named streams and 15 major rivers,^[28][29] with the Rio Grande as the largest. Other major rivers include the Pecos, the Brazos, Colorado, and Red River. While Texas has few natural lakes, Texans have built over 100 artificial reservoirs.^[30]

The size and unique history of Texas make its regional affiliation debatable; it can be fairly considered a Southern or a Southwestern state, or both. The vast geographic, economic, and cultural diversity within the state itself prohibits easy categorization of the whole state into a recognized region of the United States. Notable extremes range from East Texas which is often considered an extension of the Deep South, to Far West Texas which is generally acknowledged to be part of the interior Southwest.^[31]

Geology

Texas is the southernmost part of the Great Plains, which ends in the south against the folded Sierra Madre Occidental of Mexico. The continental crust forms a stable Mesoproterozoic craton which changes across a broad continental margin and transitional crust into true oceanic crust of the Gulf of Mexico. The oldest rocks in Texas date from the Mesoproterozoic and are about 1,600 million years old.

These Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks underlie most of the state, and are exposed in three places: Llano uplift, Van Horn, and the Franklin Mountains, near El Paso. Sedimentary rocks overlay most of these ancient rocks. The oldest sediments were deposited on the flanks of a rifted continental margin, or passive margin that developed during Cambrian time.

This margin existed until Laurasia and Gondwana collided in the Pennsylvanian subperiod to form Pangea. This is the buried crest of the Appalachian Mountains–Ouachita Mountains zone of Pennsylvanian continental collision. This orogenic crest is today buried beneath the Dallas–Waco—Austin–San Antonio trend.

The late Paleozoic mountains collapsed as rifting in the Jurassic period began to open the Gulf of Mexico. Pangea began to break up in the Triassic, but seafloor spreading to form the Gulf of Mexico occurred only in the mid and late Jurassic. The shoreline shifted again to the eastern margin of the state and the Gulf of Mexico passive margin began to form. Today 9 to 12 miles (14 to 19 km) of sediments are buried beneath the Texas continental shelf and a large proportion of remaining US oil reserves are here. At the start of its formation, the incipient Gulf of Mexico basin was restricted and seawater often evaporated completely to form thick evaporite deposits of Jurassic age. These salt deposits formed salt dome diapirs, and are found in East Texas along the Gulf coast.^[32]

East Texas outcrops consist of Cretaceous and Paleogene sediments which contain important deposits of Eocene lignite. The Mississippian and Pennsylvanian sediments in the north; Permian sediments in the west; and Cretaceous sediments in the east, along the Gulf coast and out on the Texas continental shelf contain oil. Oligocene volcanic rocks are found in far west Texas in the Big Bend area. A blanket of Miocene sediments known as the Ogallala formation in the western high plains region is an important aquifer.^[33] Located far from an active plate tectonic boundary, Texas has no volcanoes and few earthquakes.^[34]

Wildlife

A wide range of animals and insects live in Texas. It is the home to 65 species of mammals, 213 species of reptiles and amphibians, and the greatest diversity of bird life in the United States—590 native species in all.^[35] At least 12 species have been introduced and now reproduce freely in Texas.^[36]

Texas plays host to several species of wasps. Texas is one of the regions that has the highest abundance of Polistes exclamans.^[37] Additionally, Texas has provided an important ground for the study of Polistes annularis.

During the spring Texas wildflowers such as the state flower, the bluebonnet, line highways throughout Texas. During the Johnson Administration the first lady, Lady Bird Johnson, worked to draw attention to Texas wildflowers.

Climate

The large size of Texas and its location at the intersection of multiple climate zones gives the state highly variable weather. The Panhandle of the state has colder winters than North Texas, while the Gulf Coast has mild winters. Texas has wide variations in precipitation patterns. El Paso, on the western end of the state, averages 8.7 inches (220 mm) of annual rainfall,^[38] while parts of southeast Texas average as much as 64 inches (1,600 mm) per year.^[39] Dallas in the North Central region averages a more moderate 37 inches (940 mm) per year.

Snow falls multiple times each winter in the Panhandle and mountainous areas of West Texas, once or twice a year in North Texas, and once every few years in Central and East Texas. Snow falls south of San Antonio or on the coast in rare circumstances only. Of note is the 2004 Christmas Eve snowstorm, when 6 inches (150 mm) of snow fell as far south as Kingsville, where the average high temperature in December is 65 °F.^[40]

Maximum temperatures in the summer months average from the 80s °F (26 °C) in the mountains of West Texas and on Galveston Island to around 100 °F (38 °C) in the Rio Grande Valley, but most areas of Texas see consistent summer high temperatures in the 90 °F (32 °C) range.

Night-time summer temperatures range from the upper 50s °F (14 °C) in the West Texas mountains^[41] to 80 °F (27 °C) in Galveston.^[42]

The table below consists of averages for August (generally the warmest month) and January (generally the coldest) in selected cities in various regions of the state. El Paso and Amarillo are exceptions with July and December respectively being the warmest and coldest months respectively, but with August and January only being narrowly different.

Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for selected cities in Texas^[43]

Location	August (°F)	August (°C)	January (°F)	January (°C)
Houston	94/75	34/24	63/54	17/12
San Antonio	96/74	35/23	63/40	17/5
Dallas	96/77	36/25	57/37	16/3
Austin	97/74	36/23	61/45	16/5
El Paso	92/67	33/21	57/32	14/0
Laredo	100/77	37/25	67/46	19/7
Amarillo	89/64	32/18	50/23	10/–4
Brownsville	94/76	34/24	70/51	21/11

Storms

Thunderstorms strike Texas often, especially the eastern and northern portions of the state. Tornado Alley covers the northern section of Texas. The state experiences the most tornadoes in the United States, an average of 139 a year. These strike most frequently in North Texas and the Panhandle.^[44] Tornadoes in Texas generally occur in the months of April, May, and June.^[45]

Some of the most destructive hurricanes in U.S. history have impacted Texas. A hurricane in 1875 killed about 400 people in Indianola, followed by another hurricane in 1886 that destroyed the town. These events allowed Galveston to take over as the chief port city. The 1900 Galveston hurricane subsequently devastated that city, killing about 8,000 people or possibly as many as 12,000. This makes it the deadliest natural disaster in U.S. history.^[46] In 2017, Hurricane Harvey made landfall in Rockport as a Category 4 Hurricane, causing significant damage there. The storm stalled over land for a very long time, allowing it to drop unprecedented amounts of rain over the Greater Houston area and surrounding counties. The result was widespread and catastrophic flooding that inundated hundreds of thousands of homes. Harvey ultimately became the costliest hurricane worldwide, causing an estimated $198.6 billion in damage, surpassing the cost of Hurricane Katrina.^[47]

Other devastating Texas hurricanes include the 1915 Galveston hurricane, Hurricane Audrey in 1957 which killed over 600 people, Hurricane Carla in 1961, Hurricane Beulah in 1967, Hurricane Alicia in 1983, Hurricane Rita in 2005, and Hurricane Ike in 2008. Tropical storms have also caused their share of damage: Allison in 1989 and again during 2001, and Claudette in 1979 among them.

Greenhouse gases

Texas emits the most greenhouse gases in the U.S.^[48][49][50] The state emits nearly 1.5 trillion pounds (680 billion kg) of carbon dioxide annually. As an independent nation, Texas would rank as the world's seventh-largest producer of greenhouse gases.^[49] Causes of the state's vast greenhouse gas emissions include the state's large number of coal power plants and the state's refining and manufacturing industries.^[49] In 2010, there were 2,553 "emission events" which poured 44.6 million pounds of contaminants into the Texas sky.^[51]

History

Pre-European era

Part of a series on the
History of Texas
Timeline
Pre-Columbian Texas Early Spanish explorations 1520– French Texas 1684–1689 Spanish Texas 1690–1821 Mexican Texas 1821–1836 Republic of Texas 1836–1845 Statehood 1845–1860 Civil War Era 1861–1865 Reconstruction 1865–1899 State of Texas
Texas portal
v t e

Texas lies between two major cultural spheres of Pre-Columbian North America: the Southwestern and the Plains areas. Archaeologists have found that three major indigenous cultures lived in this territory, and reached their developmental peak before the first European contact. These were:^[52]

• the Pueblo from the upper Rio Grande region, centered west of Texas;


• the Mississippian culture, also known as Mound Builders, which extended along the Mississippi River Valley east of Texas; and


• the civilizations of Mesoamerica, centered south of Texas. Influence of Teotihuacan in northern Mexico peaked around AD 500 and declined over the 8th to 10th centuries.

When Europeans arrived in the Texas region, there were several races of Native peoples divided into many smaller tribes. They were Caddoan, Atakapan, Athabaskan, Coahuiltecan & Uto-Aztecan. The Uto-Aztecan Puebloan peoples lived neared the Rio Grande in the western portion of the state, the Athabaskan-speaking Apache tribes lived throughout the interior, the Caddoans controlled much of the Red River region & the Atakapans were mostly centered along the Gulf Coast. At least one tribe of Coahuiltecans, the Aranama, lived in southern Texas. This entire culture group, primarily centered in northeastern Mexico, is now extinct. It is difficult to say who lived in the northwestern region of the state originally. By the time the region came to be explored, it belonged to the fairly well-known Comanche, another Uto-Aztecan people who had transitioned into a powerful horse culture, but it is believed that they came later and did not live there during the 16th century. It may have been claimed by several different peoples, including Uto-Aztecans, Athabaskans, or even Dhegihan Siouans.

No culture was dominant in the present-day Texas region, and many peoples inhabited the area.^[52] Native American tribes that lived inside the boundaries of present-day Texas include the Alabama, Apache, Atakapan, Bidai, Caddo, Aranama, Comanche, Choctaw, Coushatta, Hasinai, Jumano, Karankawa, Kickapoo, Kiowa, Tonkawa, and Wichita.^[53][54] The name Texas derives from táyshaʔ, a word in the Caddoan language of the Hasinai, which means "friends" or "allies".^{[2][55][56][57][58]}

The region was primarily controlled by the Spanish for the first couple centuries of contact, until the Texas Revolution. They were not particularly kind to their native populations—even less so with the Caddoans, who were not trusted as their culture was split between the Spanish & the French. When the Spanish briefly managed to conquer the Louisiana colony, they decided to switch tactics and attempt being exceedingly friendly to the Indians, which they continued even after the French took back the colony. After the 1803 Louisiana Purchase, the United States inherited this odd circumstance. The Caddoans preferred the company of Americans & almost the entire population of them migrated into the states of Louisiana & Arkansas. The Spanish felt jilted after having spent so much time & effort and began trying to lure the Caddo back, even promising them more land. Seemingly without actually knowing how they came by it, the United States (who had begun convincing tribes to self-segregate from whites by selling everything and moving west ever since they gained the Louisiana Purchase) faced an overflow of native peoples in Missouri & Arkansas & were able to negotiate with the Caddoans to allow several displaced peoples to settle on unused lands in eastern Texas. They included the Muscogee, Houma Choctaw, Lenape & Mingo Seneca, among others, who all came to view the Caddoans as saviors, making those peoples highly influential.^[59][60]

Whether a Native American tribe was friendly or warlike was critical to the fates of European explorers and settlers in that land.^[61] Friendly tribes taught newcomers how to grow indigenous crops, prepare foods, and hunt wild game. Warlike tribes made life difficult and dangerous for Europeans through their attacks and resistance to the newcomers.^[62]

During the Texas Revolution, the U.S. became heavily involved. Prior treaties with the Spanish forbade either side from militarizing its native population in any potential conflict between the two nations. At that time, several sudden outbreaks of violence between Caddoans & Texans started to spread. The Caddoans were always clueless when questioned, The Texan & American authorities in the region could never find hard evidence linking them to it & often it was so far flung from Caddoan lands, it barely made any sense. It seems most likely that these were false-flag attacks meant to start a cascading effect to force the natives under Caddoan influence into armed conflict without breaking any treaties—preferably on the side of the Spanish. While no proof was found as to who the culprit was, those in charge of Texas at the time attempted multiple times to publicly blame and punish the Caddoans for the incidents with the U.S. government trying to keep them in check. Furthermore, the Caddoans never turned to violence because of it, excepting cases of self-defense.^[59]

By the 1830s, the U.S. had drafted the Indian Removal Act, which was used to facilitate the Trail of Tears. Fearing retribution of other native peoples, Indian Agents all over the eastern U.S. began desperately trying to convince all their native peoples to uproot and move west. This included the Caddoans of Louisiana & Arkansas. Following the Texas Revolution, the Texans chose to make peace with their Native peoples, but did not honor former land claims or agreements. This began the movement of Native populations north into what would become Indian Territory—modern day Oklahoma.^[59]

Colonization

The first historical document related to Texas was a map of the Gulf Coast, created in 1519 by Spanish explorer Alonso Álvarez de Pineda.^[63] Nine years later, shipwrecked Spanish explorer Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and his cohort became the first Europeans in what is now Texas.^[64][65] Cabeza de Vaca reported that in 1528, when the Spanish landed in the area, "half the natives died from a disease of the bowels and blamed us."^[66] Cabeza de Vaca also made observations about the way of life of the Ignaces Natives of Texas:

.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}

They went about with a firebrand, setting fire to the plains and timber so as to drive off the mosquitos, and also to get lizards and similar things which they eat, to come out of the soil. In the same manner they kill deer, encircling them with fires, and they do it also to deprive the animals of pasture, compelling them to go for food where the Indians want.^[67]

Francisco Vázquez de Coronado describes his 1541 encounter with:

Two kinds of people travel around these plains with the cows; one is called Querechos and the others Teyas; they are very well built, and painted, and are enemies of each other. They have no other settlement or location than comes from traveling around with the cows. They kill all of these they wish, and tan the hides, with which they clothe themselves and make their tents, and they eat the flesh, sometimes even raw, and they also even drink the blood when thirsty. The tents they make are like field tents, and they set them up over some poles they have made for this purpose, which come together and are tied at the top, and when they go from one place to another they carry them on some dogs they have, of which they have many, and they load them with the tents and poles and other things, for the country is so level, as I said, that they can make use of these, because they carry the poles dragging along on the ground. The sun is what they worship most.^[68]

European powers ignored the area until accidentally settling there in 1685. Miscalculations by René-Robert Cavelier de La Salle resulted in his establishing the colony of Fort Saint Louis at Matagorda Bay rather than along the Mississippi River.^[69] The colony lasted only four years before succumbing to harsh conditions and hostile natives.^[70]

In 1690 Spanish authorities, concerned that France posed competitive threat, constructed several missions in East Texas.^[71] After Native American resistance, the Spanish missionaries returned to Mexico.^[72] When France began settling Louisiana, mostly in the southern part of the state, in 1716 Spanish authorities responded by founding a new series of missions in East Texas.^[73] Two years later, they created San Antonio as the first Spanish civilian settlement in the area.^[74]

Hostile native tribes and distance from nearby Spanish colonies discouraged settlers from moving to the area. It was one of New Spain's least populated provinces.^[76] In 1749, the Spanish peace treaty with the Lipan Apache^[77] angered many tribes, including the Comanche, Tonkawa, and Hasinai.^[78] The Comanche signed a treaty with Spain in 1785^[79] and later helped to defeat the Lipan Apache and Karankawa tribes.^[80] With more numerous missions being established, priests led a peaceful conversion of most tribes. By the end of the 18th century only a few nomadic tribes had not converted to Christianity.^[81]

When the United States purchased Louisiana from France in 1803, American authorities insisted the agreement also included Texas. The boundary between New Spain and the United States was finally set at the Sabine River in 1819, at what is now the border between Texas and Louisiana.^[82] Eager for new land, many United States settlers refused to recognize the agreement. Several filibusters raised armies to invade the area west of the Sabine River.^[83] In 1821, the Mexican War of Independence included the Texas territory, which became part of Mexico.^[84] Due to its low population, Mexico made the area part of the state of Coahuila y Tejas.^[85]

Hoping more settlers would reduce the near-constant Comanche raids, Mexican Texas liberalized its immigration policies to permit immigrants from outside Mexico and Spain.^[86] Under the Mexican immigration system, large swathes of land were allotted to empresarios, who recruited settlers from the United States, Europe, and the Mexican interior. The first grant, to Moses Austin, was passed to his son Stephen F. Austin after his death.

Austin's settlers, the Old Three Hundred, made places along the Brazos River in 1822.^[87] Twenty-three other empresarios brought settlers to the state, the majority of whom were from the United States.^[88] The population of Texas grew rapidly. In 1825, Texas had about 3,500 people, with most of Mexican descent.^[89] By 1834, the population had grown to about 37,800 people, with only 7,800 of Mexican descent.^[90] Most of these early settlers who arrived with Austin and soon after were persons less than fortunate in life, as Texas was devoid of the comforts found elsewhere in Mexico and the United States during that time. Early Texas settler David B. Edwards described his fellow Texans as being "banished from the pleasures of life".^[91]

Many immigrants openly flouted Mexican law, especially the prohibition against slavery. Combined with United States' attempts to purchase Texas, Mexican authorities decided in 1830 to prohibit continued immigration from the United States.^[92] New laws also called for the enforcement of customs duties angering both native Mexican citizens (Tejanos) and recent immigrants.^[93]

The Anahuac Disturbances in 1832 were the first open revolt against Mexican rule and they coincided with a revolt in Mexico against the nation's president.^[94]Texians sided with the federalists against the current government and drove all Mexican soldiers out of East Texas.^[95] They took advantage of the lack of oversight to agitate for more political freedom. Texians met at the Convention of 1832 to discuss requesting independent statehood, among other issues.^[96] The following year, Texians reiterated their demands at the Convention of 1833.^[97]

Republic

Within Mexico, tensions continued between federalists and centralists. In early 1835, wary Texians formed Committees of Correspondence and Safety.^[98] The unrest erupted into armed conflict in late 1835 at the Battle of Gonzales.^[99] This launched the Texas Revolution, and over the next two months, the Texians defeated all Mexican troops in the region.^[100] Texians elected delegates to the Consultation, which created a provisional government.^[101] The provisional government soon collapsed from infighting, and Texas was without clear governance for the first two months of 1836.^[102]

During this time of political turmoil, Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna personally led an army to end the revolt.^[103] The Mexican expedition was initially successful. General José de Urrea defeated all the Texian resistance along the coast culminating in the Goliad massacre.^[104] Santa Anna's forces, after a thirteen-day siege, overwhelmed Texian defenders at the Battle of the Alamo. News of the defeats sparked panic among Texas settlers.^[105]

The newly elected Texian delegates to the Convention of 1836 quickly signed a Declaration of Independence on March 2, forming the Republic of Texas. After electing interim officers, the Convention disbanded.^[106] The new government joined the other settlers in Texas in the Runaway Scrape, fleeing from the approaching Mexican army.^[105] After several weeks of retreat, the Texian Army commanded by Sam Houston attacked and defeated Santa Anna's forces at the Battle of San Jacinto.^[107] Santa Anna was captured and forced to sign the Treaties of Velasco, ending the war.^[108]

While Texas had won its independence, political battles raged between two factions of the new Republic. The nationalist faction, led by Mirabeau B. Lamar, advocated the continued independence of Texas, the expulsion of the Native Americans, and the expansion of the Republic to the Pacific Ocean. Their opponents, led by Sam Houston, advocated the annexation of Texas to the United States and peaceful co-existence with Native Americans. The conflict between the factions was typified by an incident known as the Texas Archive War.^[109]

Mexico launched two small expeditions into Texas in 1842. The town of San Antonio was captured twice and Texans were defeated in battle in the Dawson massacre. Despite these successes, Mexico did not keep an occupying force in Texas, and the republic survived.^[110] The republic's inability to defend itself added momentum to Texas's eventual annexation into the United States.

Statehood

As early as 1837, the Republic made several attempts to negotiate annexation with the United States.^[111] Opposition within the republic from the nationalist faction, along with strong abolitionist opposition within the United States, slowed Texas's admission into the Union. Texas was finally annexed when the expansionist James K. Polk won the election of 1844.^[112] On December 29, 1845, Congress admitted Texas to the U.S. as a constituent state of the Union.^[113]

The population of the new state was quite small at first and there was a strong mix between the English-speaking American settlers that dominated in the state's eastern/northeastern portions and the Spanish-speaking former Mexicans that dominated in the state's southern and western portions. Statehood brought many new settlers. Because of the long Spanish presence in Mexico and various failed colonization efforts by the Spanish and Mexicans in northern Mexico, there were large herds of Longhorn cattle that roamed the state. Hardy by nature but also suitable for slaughtering and consumption, they represented an economic opportunity many entrepreneurs seized upon, thus creating the cowboy culture for which Texas is famous. While in the early days of the republic cattle and bison were slaughtered for their hides, soon a beef industry was established with cattle being shipped all over the U.S. and the Caribbean (within a few decades, beef had become a staple of the American diet).

After Texas's annexation, Mexico broke diplomatic relations with the United States. While the United States claimed Texas's border stretched to the Rio Grande, Mexico claimed it was the Nueces River. While the former Republic of Texas could not enforce its border claims, the United States had the military strength and the political will to do so. President Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor south to the Rio Grande on January 13, 1846. A few months later Mexican troops routed an American cavalry patrol in the disputed area in the Thornton Affair starting the Mexican–American War. The first battles of the war were fought in Texas: the Siege of Fort Texas, Battle of Palo Alto and Battle of Resaca de la Palma. After these decisive victories, the United States invaded Mexican territory ending the fighting in Texas.^[114]

After a series of United States victories, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the two-year war. In return, for US$18,250,000, Mexico gave the U.S. undisputed control of Texas, ceded the Mexican Cession in 1848, most of which today is called the American Southwest, and Texas's borders were established at the Rio Grande.^[114]

The Compromise of 1850 set Texas's boundaries at their present form. U.S. Senator James Pearce of Maryland drafted the final proposal^[26] where Texas ceded its claims to land which later became half of present-day New Mexico, a third of Colorado, and small portions of Kansas, Oklahoma, and Wyoming to the federal government, in return for the assumption of $10 million of the old republic's debt.^[26] Post-war Texas grew rapidly as migrants poured into the cotton lands of the state.^[115]

They also brought or purchased enslaved African Americans, whose numbers tripled in the state from 1850 to 1860, from 58,000 to 182,566.^[116]

Civil War and Reconstruction (1860–1900)

Texas was at war again after the election of 1860. At this time, blacks comprised 30 percent of the state's population, and they were overwhelmingly enslaved.^[117] When Abraham Lincoln was elected, South Carolina seceded from the Union. Five other Lower South states quickly followed. A State Convention considering secession opened in Austin on January 28, 1861. On February 1, by a vote of 166–8, the Convention adopted an Ordinance of Secession from the United States. Texas voters approved this Ordinance on February 23, 1861. Texas joined the newly created Confederate States of America on March 4, 1861 ratifying the permanent C.S. Constitution on March 23.^[2][118]

Not all Texans favored secession initially, although many of the same would later support the Southern cause. Texas's most notable Unionist was the state Governor, Sam Houston. Not wanting to aggravate the situation, Houston refused two offers from President Lincoln for Union troops to keep him in office. After refusing to swear an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy, Houston was deposed as governor.^[119]

While far from the major battlefields of the American Civil War, Texas contributed large numbers of men and equipment to the rest of the Confederacy.^[120] Union troops briefly occupied the state's primary port, Galveston. Texas's border with Mexico was known as the "backdoor of the Confederacy" because trade occurred at the border, bypassing the Union blockade.^[121] The Confederacy repulsed all Union attempts to shut down this route,^[120] but Texas's role as a supply state was marginalized in mid-1863 after the Union capture of the Mississippi River. The final battle of the Civil War was fought near Brownsville, Texas at Palmito Ranch^[122] with a Confederate victory.

Texas descended into anarchy for two months between the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia and the assumption of authority by Union General Gordon Granger. Violence marked the early months of Reconstruction.^[120]Juneteenth commemorates the announcement of the Emancipation Proclamation in Galveston by General Gordon Granger, almost two and a half years after the original announcement.^[123][124] President Johnson, in 1866, declared the civilian government restored in Texas.^[125] Despite not meeting reconstruction requirements, Congress resumed allowing elected Texas representatives into the federal government in 1870. Social volatility continued as the state struggled with agricultural depression and labor issues.^[126]

Like most of the South, the Texas economy was devastated by the War. However, since the state had not been as dependent on slaves as other parts of the South it was able to recover more quickly. The culture in Texas during the later 19th century exhibited many facets of a frontier territory. The state became notorious as a haven for people from other parts of the country who wanted to escape debt, criminal prosecution, or other problems. Indeed, "Gone to Texas" was a common expression for those fleeing the law in other states. Nevertheless, the state also attracted many businessmen and other settlers with more legitimate interests as well.

The cattle industry continued to thrive though it gradually became less profitable. Cotton and lumber became major industries creating new economic booms in various regions of the state. Railroad networks grew rapidly as did the port at Galveston as commerce between Texas and the rest of the U.S. (and the rest of the world) expanded. As with some other states before, the lumber industry quickly decimated the forests of Texas such that by the early 20th century the majority of the forest population in Texas was gone (later conservation efforts restored some of it, but never to the level it once was).

Earlier 20th century

In 1900, Texas suffered the deadliest natural disaster in U.S. history during the Galveston hurricane.^[46] On January 10, 1901, the first major oil well in Texas, Spindletop, was found south of Beaumont. Other fields were later discovered nearby in East Texas, West Texas, and under the Gulf of Mexico. The resulting "oil boom" transformed Texas.^[127] Oil production eventually averaged three million barrels per day at its peak in 1972.^[128]

In 1901, the Democratic-dominated state legislature passed a bill requiring payment of a poll tax for voting, which effectively disenfranchised most blacks, and many poor whites and Latinos. In addition, the legislature established white primaries, ensuring minorities were excluded from the formal political process. The number of voters dropped dramatically, and the Democrats crushed competition from the Republican and Populist parties.^[129][130] The Socialist Party became the second-largest party in Texas after 1912,^[131] coinciding with a large socialist upsurge in the United States during fierce battles in the labor movement and the popularity of national heroes like Eugene V. Debs. The Socialists' popularity soon waned after their vilification by the United States government for their opposition to US involvement in World War I.

The Great Depression and the Dust Bowl dealt a double blow to the state's economy, which had significantly improved since the Civil War. Migrants abandoned the worst hit sections of Texas during the Dust Bowl years. Especially from this period on, blacks left Texas in the Great Migration to get work in the Northern United States or California and to escape the oppression of segregation.^[117] In 1940, Texas was 74 percent Anglo, 14.4 percent black, and 11.5 percent Hispanic.^[132]

World War II had a dramatic impact on Texas, as federal money poured in to build military bases, munitions factories, POW detention camps and Army hospitals; 750,000 young men left for service; the cities exploded with new industry; the colleges took on new roles; and hundreds of thousands of poor farmers left the fields for much better paying war jobs, never to return to agriculture.^[133][134] Texas manufactured 3.1 percent of total United States military armaments produced during World War II, ranking eleventh among the 48 states.^[135]

Texas modernized and expanded its system of higher education through the 1960s. The state created a comprehensive plan for higher education, funded in large part by oil revenues, and a central state apparatus designed to manage state institutions more efficiently. These changes helped Texas universities receive federal research funds.^[136]

On November 22, 1963, President John F. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas.^[137]

Economic and political change (1950–present)

Beginning around the mid-20th century, Texas began to transform from a rural and agricultural state to one urban and industrialized.^[138] The state's population grew quickly during this period, with large levels of migration from outside the state.^[138] As a part of the Sun Belt Texas experienced strong economic growth, particularly during the 1970s and early 1980s.^[138] Texas's economy diversified, lessening its reliance on the petroleum industry.^[138] By 1990, Hispanics overtook blacks to become the largest minority group in the state.^[138]

During the late 20th century, the Republican Party replaced the Democratic Party as the dominant party in the state, as the latter became more politically liberal and as demographic changes favored the former.^[138]

Government and politics

The current Texas Constitution was adopted in 1876. Like many states, it explicitly provides for a separation of powers. The state's Bill of Rights is much larger than its federal counterpart, and has provisions unique to Texas.^[139]

State government

Texas has a plural executive branch system limiting the power of the governor, which is a weak executive compared to some other states. Except for the Secretary of State, voters elect executive officers independently; thus candidates are directly answerable to the public, not the governor.^[140] This election system has led to some executive branches split between parties and reduced the ability of the governor to carry out a program. When Republican President George W. Bush served as Texas's governor, the state had a Democratic lieutenant governor, Bob Bullock. The executive branch positions consist of the Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Comptroller of Public Accounts, Land Commissioner, Attorney General, Agriculture Commissioner, the three-member Texas Railroad Commission, the State Board of Education, and the Secretary of State.^[140]

The bicameral Texas Legislature consists of the House of Representatives, with 150 members, and a Senate, with 31 members. The Speaker of the House leads the House, and the lieutenant governor, the Senate.^[141] The Legislature meets in regular session biennially for just over 100 days, but the governor can call for special sessions as often as desired (notably, the Legislature cannot call itself into session).^[142] The state's fiscal year spans from the previous calendar year's September 1 to the current year's August 31. Thus, the FY 2015 dates from September 1, 2014 through August 31, 2015.

The judiciary of Texas is one of the most complex in the United States, with many layers and overlapping jurisdictions. Texas has two courts of last resort: the Texas Supreme Court, for civil cases, and the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals. Except for some municipal benches, partisan elections select judges at all levels of the judiciary; the governor fills vacancies by appointment.^[143] Texas is notable for its use of capital punishment, having led the country in executions since capital punishment was reinstated in the Gregg v. Georgia case (see Capital punishment in Texas).

The Texas Ranger Division of the Texas Department of Public Safety is a law enforcement agency with statewide jurisdiction. Over the years, the Texas Rangers have investigated crimes ranging from murder to political corruption. They have acted as riot police and as detectives, protected the Texas governor, tracked down fugitives, and functioned as a paramilitary force both for the republic and the state. The Texas Rangers were unofficially created by Stephen F. Austin in 1823 and formally constituted in 1835. The Rangers were integral to several important events of Texas history and some of the best-known criminal cases in the history of the Old West.^[144]

The Texas constitution defines the responsibilities of county governments, which serve as agents of the state. What are called commissioners court and court judges are elected to serve as the administrative arm. Most cities in the state, those over 5,000 in population, have home-rule governments. The vast majority of these have charters for council-manager forms of government, by which voters elect council members, who hire a professional city manager as operating officer.

Politics

Texas Presidential elections results^[145]

Year	Republican	Democratic
2016	52.23% 4,685,047	43.24% 3,877,868
2012	57.15% 4,569,843	41.37% 3,308,124
2008	55.39% 4,479,328	43.63% 3,528,633
2004	61.09% 4,526,917	38.30% 2,832,704
2000	59.30% 3,799,639	38.11% 2,433,746
1996	48.80% 2,736,166	43.81% 2,459,683
1992	40.61% 2,496,071	37.11% 2,281,815
1988	56.01% 3,036,829	43.41% 2,352,748
1984	63.58% 3,433,428	36.18% 1,949,276
1980	55.30% 2,510,705	41.51% 1,881,148

Political history

In the 1870s, white Democrats wrested power back in the state legislature from the biracial coalition at the end of Reconstruction. In the early 20th century, the legislature passed bills to impose poll taxes, followed by white primaries; these measures effectively disfranchised most blacks, poor whites and Mexican Americans.^[129][130] In the 1890s, 100,000 blacks voted in the state; by 1906, only 5,000 could vote.^[146] As a result, the Democratic Party dominated Texas politics from the turn of the century, imposing racial segregation and white supremacy. It held power until after passage in the mid-1960s of national civil rights legislation enforcing constitutional rights of all citizens.

Although Texas was essentially a one-party state during this time and the Democratic primary was viewed as "the real election," the Democratic Party had conservative and liberal factions, which became more pronounced after the New Deal.^[147] Additionally, several factions of the party briefly split during the 1930s and 1940s.^[147]

The state's conservative white voters began to support Republican presidential candidates by the mid-20th century. After this period, they supported Republicans for local and state offices as well, and most whites became Republican Party members.^[148] The party also attracted some minorities, but many have continued to vote for Democratic candidates. The shift to the Republican Party is much-attributed to the fact the Democratic Party became increasingly liberal during the 20th century, and thus increasingly out-of-touch with the average Texas voter.^[149] As Texas was always a conservative state, voters switched to the GOP, which now more closely reflected their beliefs.^[149][150] Commentators have also attributed the shift to Republican political consultant Karl Rove, who managed numerous political campaigns in Texas in the 1980s and 1990s.^[150] Other stated reasons included court-ordered redistricting and the demographic shift in relation to the Sun Belt that favored the Republican Party and conservatism.^[138]

The 2003 Texas redistricting of Congressional districts led by Republican Tom DeLay, was called by The New York Times "an extreme case of partisan gerrymandering".^[151] A group of Democratic legislators, the "Texas Eleven", fled the state in a quorum-busting effort to prevent the legislature from acting, but was unsuccessful.^[152] The state had already redistricted following the 2000 census. Despite these efforts, the legislature passed a map heavily in favor of Republicans, based on 2000 data and ignoring the estimated nearly one million new residents in the state since that date. Career attorneys and analysts at the Department of Justice objected to the plan as diluting the votes of African American and Hispanic voters, but political appointees overrode them and approved it.^[151] Legal challenges to the redistricting reached the national Supreme Court in the case League of United Latin American Citizens v. Perry (2006), but the court ruled in favor of the state (and Republicans).^[153]

In the 2014 Texas elections, the Tea Party movement made large gains, with numerous Tea Party favorites being elected into office, including Dan Patrick as lieutenant governor,^[154][155]Ken Paxton as attorney general,^[154][156] in addition to numerous other candidates^[156] including conservative Republican Greg Abbott as governor.^[157]

Texas politics today

Texas voters lean toward fiscal conservatism, while enjoying the benefits of huge federal investment in the state in military and other facilities achieved by the power of the Solid South in the 20th century. They also tend to have socially conservative values.^[158][159]

Since 1980, most Texas voters have supported Republican presidential candidates. In 2000 and 2004, Republican George W. Bush won Texas with respectively 59.3 and 60.1 percent of the vote, partly due to his "favorite son" status as a former governor of the state. John McCain won the state in 2008, but with a smaller margin of victory compared to Bush at 55 percent of the vote. Austin, Dallas, Houston, and San Antonio consistently lean Democratic in both local and statewide elections.

Residents of counties along the Rio Grande closer to the Mexico-United States border, where there are many Latino residents, generally vote for Democratic Party candidates, while most other rural and suburban areas of Texas have shifted to voting for Republican Party candidates.^[160][161]

As of the general elections of 2014, a large majority of the members of Texas's U.S. House delegation are Republican, along with both U.S. Senators. In the 114th United States Congress, of the 36 Congressional districts in Texas, 24 are held by Republicans and 11 by Democrats. One seat is vacant. Texas's Senators are John Cornyn and Ted Cruz. Since 1994, Texans have not elected a Democrat to a statewide office. The state's Democratic voters are made up primarily by liberal and minority groups in Austin, Beaumont, Dallas, El Paso, Houston and San Antonio as well as minority voters in East and South Texas.

United States presidential election in Texas, 2016[162]
Party		Candidate	Running mate	Votes	Percentage	Electoral votes
	Republican	Donald Trump	Mike Pence	4,685,047	52.23%	36
	Democratic	Hillary Clinton	Tim Kaine	3,877,868	43.24%	0
	Libertarian	Gary Johnson	William Weld	283,492	3.16%	0
	Green	Jill Stein	Ajamu Baraka	71,558	0.80%	0
	Write-in	Various candidates	Various candidates	51,261	0.57%	0
	Republican	John Kasich[a]	Carly Fiorina[a]	0	0.0%	1
	Libertarian	Ron Paul[a]	Mike Pence	0	0.0%	1
Totals				8,969,226	100.00%	38
Voter turnout (voting age population)

Administrative divisions

Texas has 254 counties— the most nationwide. Each county runs on Commissioners' Court system consisting of four elected commissioners (one from each of four precincts in the county, roughly divided according to population) and a county judge elected at large from the entire county. County government runs similar to a "weak" mayor-council system; the county judge has no veto authority, but votes along with the other commissioners.

Although Texas permits cities and counties to enter "interlocal agreements" to share services, the state does not allow consolidated city-county governments, nor does it have metropolitan governments. Counties are not granted home rule status; their powers are strictly defined by state law. The state does not have townships— areas within a county are either incorporated or unincorporated. Incorporated areas are part of a municipality. The county provides limited services to unincorporated areas and to some smaller incorporated areas. Municipalities are classified either "general law" cities or "home rule".^[163] A municipality may elect home rule status once it exceeds 5,000 population with voter approval.

Texas also permits the creation of "special districts", which provide limited services. The most common is the school district, but can also include hospital districts, community college districts, and utility districts (one utility district near Austin was the plaintiff in a landmark Supreme Court case involving the Voting Rights Act).

Municipal, school district, and special district elections are nonpartisan,^[164] though the party affiliation of a candidate may be well-known. County and state elections are partisan.

Criminal law

Texas has a reputation of very harsh criminal punishment for criminal offenses. It is one of the 32 states that practice capital punishment, and since the US Supreme Court allowed capital punishment to resume in 1976, 40% of all US executions have taken place in Texas.^[165] As of 2008, Texas had the 4th highest incarceration rate in the US.^[166] Texas also has strong self defense laws, allowing citizens to use lethal force to defend themselves, their families, or their property.^[167]

Economy

As of 2017, Texas had a gross state product (GSP) of $1.696 trillion, the second highest in the U.S.^[168] Its GSP is greater than the GDPs of Canada, South Korea, Russia and Australia, which are the world's 10th-, 11th-, 12th- and 13th-largest economies, respectively^[169]. Texas's economy is the fourth-largest of any country subdivision globally, behind England (as part of the UK), California, and Japan's Kantō region. Its per capita personal income in 2009 was $36,484, ranking 29th in the nation.^[170]

Texas's large population, abundance of natural resources, thriving cities and leading centers of higher education have contributed to a large and diverse economy. Since oil was discovered, the state's economy has reflected the state of the petroleum industry. In recent times, urban centers of the state have increased in size, containing two-thirds of the population in 2005. The state's economic growth has led to urban sprawl and its associated symptoms.^[170]

As of April 2013, the state's unemployment rate is 6.4 percent.^[171]

In 2010, Site Selection Magazine ranked Texas as the most business-friendly state in the nation, in part because of the state's three-billion-dollar Texas Enterprise Fund.^[172] Texas has the joint-highest number of Fortune 500 company headquarters in the United States, along with California.^[173][174]

In 2010, there were 346,000 millionaires in Texas, constituting the second-largest population of millionaires in the nation.^[175][176]

Taxation

Texas has a "low taxes, low services" reputation.^[158] According to the Tax Foundation, Texans' state and local tax burdens rank among the lowest in the nation, 7th lowest nationally; state and local taxes cost $3,580 per capita, or 8.4 percent of resident incomes.^[177] Texas is one of seven states that lack a state income tax.^[177][178]

Instead, the state collects revenue from property taxes (though these are collected at the county, city, and school district level; Texas has a state constitutional prohibition against a state property tax) and sales taxes. The state sales tax rate is 6.25 percent,^[177][179] but local taxing jurisdictions (cities, counties, special purpose districts, and transit authorities) may also impose sales and use tax up to 2 percent for a total maximum combined rate of 8.25 percent.^[180]

Texas is a "tax donor state"; in 2005, for every dollar Texans paid to the federal government in federal income taxes, the state got back about $0.94 in benefits.^[177] To attract business, Texas has incentive programs worth $19 billion per year (2012); more than any other US state.^[181][182]

Agriculture and mining

Texas has the most farms and the highest acreage in the United States. The state is ranked No. 1 for revenue generated from total livestock and livestock products. It is ranked No. 2 for total agricultural revenue, behind California.^[183] At $7.4 billion or 56.7 percent of Texas's annual agricultural cash receipts, beef cattle production represents the largest single segment of Texas agriculture. This is followed by cotton at $1.9 billion (14.6 percent), greenhouse/nursery at $1.5 billion (11.4 percent), broilers at $1.3 billion (10 percent), and dairy products at $947 million (7.3 percent).^[184]

Texas leads the nation in the production of cattle, horses, sheep, goats, wool, mohair and hay.^[184] The state also leads the nation in production of cotton^[183][185] which is the number one crop grown in the state in terms of value.^[186] The state grows significant amounts of cereal crops and produce.^[183] Texas has a large commercial fishing industry. With mineral resources, Texas leads in creating cement, crushed stone, lime, salt, sand and gravel.^[183]

Texas throughout the 21st century has been hammered by drought. This has cost the state billions of dollars in livestock and crops.^[187]

Energy

Ever since the discovery of oil at Spindletop, energy has been a dominant force politically and economically within the state.^[188] If Texas were its own country it would be the sixth largest oil producer in the world.^[189]

The Railroad Commission of Texas, contrary to its name, regulates the state's oil and gas industry, gas utilities, pipeline safety, safety in the liquefied petroleum gas industry, and surface coal and uranium mining. Until the 1970s, the commission controlled the price of petroleum because of its ability to regulate Texas's oil reserves. The founders of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) used the Texas agency as one of their models for petroleum price control.^[190]

Texas has known petroleum deposits of about 5 billion barrels (790,000,000 m³), which makes up about one-fourth of the known U.S. reserves.^[191] The state's refineries can process 4.6 million barrels (730,000 m³) of oil a day.^[191] The Port Arthur Refinery in Southeast Texas is the largest refinery in the U.S.^[191] Texas also leads in natural gas production, producing one-fourth of the nation's supply.^[191] Several petroleum companies are based in Texas such as: Anadarko Petroleum Corporation, ConocoPhillips, ExxonMobil, Halliburton, Marathon Oil, Tesoro, and Valero, Western Refining.

According to the Energy Information Administration, Texans consume, on average, the fifth most energy (of all types) in the nation per capita and as a whole, following behind Wyoming, Alaska, Louisiana, North Dakota, and Iowa.^[191]

Unlike the rest of the nation, most of Texas is on its own alternating current power grid, the Texas Interconnection. Texas has a deregulated electric service. Texas leads the nation in total net electricity production, generating 437,236 MWh in 2014, 89% more MWh than Florida, which ranked second.^[192][193] As an independent nation, Texas would rank as the world's eleventh-largest producer of electricity, after South Korea, and ahead of the United Kingdom.

The state is a leader in renewable energy commercialization; it produces the most wind power in the nation.^[191][194] In 2014, 10.6% of the electricity consumed in Texas came from wind turbines.^[195] The Roscoe Wind Farm in Roscoe, Texas, is one of the world's largest wind farms with a 781.5 megawatt (MW) capacity.^[196] The Energy Information Administration states the state's large agriculture and forestry industries could give Texas an enormous amount biomass for use in biofuels. The state also has the highest solar power potential for development in the nation.^[191]

Technology

With large universities systems coupled with initiatives like the Texas Enterprise Fund and the Texas Emerging Technology Fund, a wide array of different high tech industries have developed in Texas. The Austin area is nicknamed the "Silicon Hills" and the north Dallas area the "Silicon Prairie". Texas has the headquarters of many high technology companies, such as Dell, Inc., Texas Instruments, Perot Systems, Rackspace and AT&T.

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center (NASA JSC) in Southeast Houston, sits as the crown jewel of Texas's aeronautics industry. Fort Worth hosts both Lockheed Martin's Aeronautics division and Bell Helicopter Textron.^[197][198] Lockheed builds the F-16 Fighting Falcon, the largest Western fighter program, and its successor, the F-35 Lightning II in Fort Worth.^[199]

Commerce

Texas's affluence stimulates a strong commercial sector consisting of retail, wholesale, banking and insurance, and construction industries. Examples of Fortune 500 companies not based on Texas traditional industries are AT&T, Kimberly-Clark, Blockbuster, J. C. Penney, Whole Foods Market, and Tenet Healthcare.^[200]
Nationally, the Dallas–Fort Worth area, home to the second shopping mall in the United States, has the most shopping malls per capita of any American metropolitan area.^[201]

Mexico, the state's largest trading partner, imports a third of the state's exports because of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). NAFTA has encouraged the formation of controversial maquiladoras on the Texas–Mexico border.^[202]

Demographics

Historical population
Census	Pop.		%±
1850	212,592		—
1860	604,215		184.2%
1870	818,579		35.5%
1880	1,591,749		94.5%
1890	2,235,527		40.4%
1900	3,048,710		36.4%
1910	3,896,542		27.8%
1920	4,663,228		19.7%
1930	5,824,715		24.9%
1940	6,414,824		10.1%
1950	7,711,194		20.2%
1960	9,579,677		24.2%
1970	11,196,730		16.9%
1980	14,229,191		27.1%
1990	16,986,510		19.4%
2000	20,851,820		22.8%
2010	25,145,561		20.6%
Est. 2017	28,304,596		12.6%
1910 – 2010 census[203] 2016 Estimate[204]

The United States Census Bureau estimates the population of Texas was 27,469,114 on July 1, 2015, a 9.24 percent increase since the 2010 United States Census.^[204]

As of 2004, the state had 3.5 million foreign-born residents (15.6 percent of the state population), of which an estimated 1.2 million are illegal immigrants. Texas from 2000 to 2006 had the fastest growing illegal immigration rate in the nation.^[205] In 2010, illegal immigrants constituted an estimated 6.0 percent of the population. This was the fifth highest percentage of any state in the country.^[206][207] In 2015, the population of illegal immigrants living in Texas was around 800,000.^[208]

Texas's Rio Grande Valley has seen significant migration from across the U.S.–Mexico border. During the 2014 crisis, many Central Americans, including unaccompanied minors traveling alone from Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador, reached the state, overwhelming Border Patrol resources for a time. Many sought asylum in the United States.^[209][210]

In 2009, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security estimated 1.68 million illegal immigrants lived in Texas.^[211] While the number of illegal immigrants living in the U.S. has declined since 2009, in Texas there was no change in population between 2009 and 2014.^[212]

Texas's population density is 90.5 people per square mile (34.9/km²) which is slightly higher than the average population density of the U.S. as a whole, at 80.6 people per square mile (31.1/km²). In contrast, while Texas and France are similarly sized geographically, the European country has a population density of 301.8 people per square mile (116.5/km²).

Two-thirds of all Texans live in a major metropolitan area such as Houston. The Dallas-Fort Worth Metropolitan Area is the largest in Texas. While Houston is the largest city in Texas and the fourth largest city in the United States, the Dallas-Fort Worth metropolitan area is larger than Houston.

Ethnicity

As of the 2015 Texas Population Estimate Program, the population of the state was 27,469,114; non-Hispanic whites 11,505,371 (41.9%); Black Americans 3,171,043 (11.5%); other races 1,793,580 (6.5%); and Hispanics and Latinos (of any race) 10,999,120 (40.0%).^[213]

According to the 2010 United States census, the racial composition of Texas was the following:^[214]

• 
  White American 70.4 percent (Non-Hispanic whites 45.3 percent)


• 
  Black or African American: 11.8 percent


• 
  American Indian: 0.7 percent


• 
  Asian: 3.8 percent (1.0 percent Indian, 0.8 percent Vietnamese, 0.6 percent Chinese, 0.4 percent Filipino, 0.3 percent Korean, 0.1 percent Japanese, 0.6 percent other Asian)
  


• 
  Pacific Islander: 0.1 percent


• Some other race: 10.5 percent


• 
  Two or more races: 2.7 percent

In addition, 37.6 percent of the population are Hispanic or Latino (of any race) (31.6 percent Mexican, 0.9 percent Salvadoran, 0.5 percent Puerto Rican, 0.4 percent Honduran, 0.3 percent Guatemalan 0.3 percent Spaniard, 0.2 percent Colombian, 0.2 percent Cuban)^[215]

As of 2011, 69.8% of the population of Texas younger than age 1 were minorities (meaning they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white).^[216]

Texas racial breakdown of population

Racial composition	1970[217]	1990[217]	2000[218]	2010[219]
White	86.8%	75.2%	71.0%	70.4%
Black	12.5%	11.9%	11.5%	11.9%
Asian	0.2%	1.9%	2.7%	3.8%
Native	0.2%	0.4%	0.6%	0.7%
Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander	–	–	0.1%	0.1%
Other race	0.4%	10.6%	11.7%	10.5%
Two or more races	–	–	2.5%	2.7%

German, Irish, and English Americans are the three largest European ancestry groups in Texas. German Americans make up 11.3 percent of the population, and number over 2.7 million members. Irish Americans make up 8.2 percent of the population, and number over 1.9 million members. There are roughly 600,000 French Americans and 472,000 Italian Americans residing in Texas; these two ethnic groups make up 2.5 percent and 2.0 percent of the population respectively. In the 1980 United States Census the largest ancestry group reported in Texas was English with 3,083,323 Texans citing they were of English or mostly English ancestry making them 27 percent of the state at the time.^[220] Their ancestry primarily goes back to the original thirteen colonies (the census of 1790 gives 48% of the population of English ancestry; together 12% Scots and Scots-Irish; 4.5% Irish South 90% were Protestant and 3% Welsh = 67.5% British; 13% were German, Swiss, Dutch and French Huguenots; 19% African-American, Colin Bonwick, The American Revolution, 1991, p. 254) and thus many of them today identify as "American" in ancestry, though they are of predominantly British stock.^[221][222] There are nearly 200,000 Czech-Americans living in Texas, the largest number of any state.^[223]

African Americans are the largest racial minority in Texas. Their proportion of population has declined since the early 20th century, after many left the state in the Great Migration. Blacks of both Hispanic and non-Hispanic origin make up 11.5 percent of the population; blacks of non-Hispanic origin form 11.3 percent of the populace. African Americans of both Hispanic and non-Hispanic origin number at roughly 2.7 million individuals.

Native Americans are a smaller minority in the state. Native Americans make up 0.5 percent of Texas's population, and number over 118,000 individuals. Native Americans of non-Hispanic origin make up 0.3 percent of the population, and number over 75,000 individuals. Cherokee made up 0.1 percent of the population, and numbered over 19,400 members. In contrast, only 583 identified as Chippewa.

Asian Americans are a sizable minority group in Texas. Americans of Asian descent form 3.8 percent of the population, with those of non-Hispanic descent making up 3.7 percent of the populace. They total more than 808,000 individuals. Non-Hispanic Asians number over 795,000. Just over 200,000 Indian Americans make Texas their home. Texas is also home to over 187,000 Vietnamese and 136,000 Chinese. In addition to 92,000 Filipinos and 62,000 Koreans, there are 18,000 Japanese Americans living in the state. Lastly, over 111,000 people are of other Asian ancestry groups, such as Cambodian, Thai, and Hmong. Sugar Land, a city within the Houston metropolitan area, and Plano, within the Dallas metropolitan area, both have high concentrations of ethnic Chinese and Korean residents. The Houston and Dallas areas, and to a lesser extent, the Austin metropolitan area, all contain substantial Vietnamese communities.

Americans with origins from the Pacific are the smallest minority in Texas. According to the survey, only 18,000 Texans are Pacific Islanders; 16,400 are of non-Hispanic descent. There are roughly 5,400 Native Hawaiians, 5,300 Guamanians, and 6,400 people from other groups. Samoan Americans were scant; only 2,920 people were from this group. The city of Euless, a suburb of Fort Worth, contains a sizable population of Tongan Americans, at nearly 900 people, over one percent of the city's population. Killeen has a sufficient population of Samoans and Guamanian, and people of Pacific Islander descent surpass one percent of the city's population.

Multiracial individuals are also a visible minority in Texas. People identifying as multiracial form 1.9 percent of the population, and number over 448,000 people. Almost 80,000 Texans claim African and European heritage, and make up 0.3 percent of the population. People of European and American Indian ancestry number over 108,800 (close to the number of Native Americans), and make up 0.5 percent of the population. People of European and Asian ancestry number over 57,600, and form just 0.2 percent of the population. People of African and Native American ancestry were even smaller in number (15,300), and make up just 0.1 percent of the total population.

Hispanics and Latinos are the second-largest group in Texas after non-Hispanic European Americans. Over 8.5 million people claim Hispanic or Latino ethnicity. This group forms over 37 percent of Texas's population. People of Mexican descent alone number over 7.9 million, and make up 31.6 percent of the population. The vast majority of the Hispanic/Latino population in the state is of Mexican descent, the next two largest groups are Salvadorans and Puerto Ricans. There are over 222,000 Salvadorans and over 130,000 Puerto Ricans in Texas. Other groups with large numbers in Texas include Hondurans, Guatemalans, Nicaraguans and Cubans, among others.^[224][225] The Hispanics in Texas are more likely than in some other states (such as California) to identify as white; according to the 2010 U.S. Census, Texas is home to 6,304,207 White Hispanics and 2,594,206 Hispanics of "some other race" (usually mestizo).

German descendants inhabit much of central and southeast-central Texas. Over one-third of Texas residents are of Hispanic origin; while many have recently arrived, some Tejanos have ancestors with multi-generational ties to 18th century Texas. In addition to the descendants of the state's former slave population, many African American college graduates have come to the state for work recently in the New Great Migration.^[226] Recently, the Asian population in Texas has grown—primarily in Houston and Dallas. Other communities with a significantly growing Asian American population is in Austin, Corpus Christi, San Antonio, and the Sharyland area next McAllen, Texas. Three federally recognized Native American tribes reside in Texas: the Alabama-Coushatta Tribe, the Kickapoo Traditional Tribe, and the Ysleta del Sur Pueblo.^[54]

In 2010, 49 percent of all births were Hispanics; 35 percent were non-Hispanic whites; 11.5 percent were non-Hispanic blacks, and 4.3 percent were Asians/Pacific Islanders.^[227] Based on Census Bureau data released on February 2011, for the first time in recent history, Texas's white population is below 50 percent (45 percent) and Hispanics grew to 38 percent. Between 2000 and 2010, the total population growth by 20.6 percent, but Hispanics growth by 65 percent, whereas non-Hispanic whites only grew by 4.2 percent.^[228] Texas has the fifth highest rate of teenage births in the nation and a plurality of these are to Hispanics.^[229]

Cities and towns

Largest city in Texas by year[230]
Year(s)	City
1850–1870	San Antonio[231]
1870–1890	Galveston[232]
1890–1900	Dallas[230]
1900–1930	San Antonio[231]
1930–present	Houston[233]

The state has three cities with populations exceeding one million: Houston, San Antonio, and Dallas.^[234] These three rank among the 10 most populous cities of the United States. As of 2010, six Texas cities had populations greater than 600,000 people. Austin, Fort Worth, and El Paso are among the 20 largest U.S. cities. Texas has four metropolitan areas with populations greater than a million: Dallas–Fort Worth–Arlington, Houston–Sugar Land–Baytown, San Antonio–New Braunfels, and Austin–Round Rock–San Marcos. The Dallas–Fort Worth and Houston metropolitan areas number about 6.3 million and 5.7 million residents, respectively.

Three interstate highways—I-35 to the west (Dallas–Fort Worth to San Antonio, with Austin in between), I-45 to the east (Dallas to Houston), and I-10 to the south (San Antonio to Houston) define the Texas Urban Triangle region. The region of 60,000 square miles (160,000 km²) contains most of the state's largest cities and metropolitan areas as well as 17 million people, nearly 75 percent of Texas's total population.^[235] Houston and Dallas have been recognized as beta world cities.^[236] These cities are spread out amongst the state. Texas has 254 counties, which is more than any other state by 95 (Georgia).^[237]

In contrast to the cities, unincorporated rural settlements known as colonias often lack basic infrastructure and are marked by poverty.^[238] The office of the Texas Attorney General stated, in 2011, that Texas had about 2,294 colonias and estimates about 500,000 lived in the colonias. Hidalgo County, as of 2011, has the largest number of colonias.^[239] Texas has the largest number of people of all states, living in colonias.^[238]

v t e Largest cities or towns in Texas Source:[240]
	Rank	Name	County	Pop.
Houston San Antonio	1	Houston	Harris	2,303,482	Dallas Austin
	2	San Antonio	Bexar	1,492,510
	3	Dallas	Dallas	1,317,929
	4	Austin	Travis	947,890
	5	Fort Worth	Tarrant	854,113
	6	El Paso	El Paso	683,080
	7	Arlington	Tarrant	392,772
	8	Corpus Christi	Nueces	325,733
	9	Plano	Collin	286,057
	10	Laredo	Webb	257,156

Languages

The most common accent or dialect spoken by natives throughout Texas is sometimes referred to as Texan English, which itself is a sub-variety of a broader category of American English known as Southern American English.^[241][242]Creole language is spoken in East Texas.^[243] In some areas of the state—particularly in the large cities – Western American English and General American English, have been on the increase. Chicano English—due to a growing Hispanic population—is widespread in South Texas, while African-American English is especially notable in historically minority areas of urban Texas.

Top 10 Non-English languages spoken in Texas

Language	Percentage of population (as of 2010)[244]
Spanish	29.21%
Vietnamese	0.75%
Chinese (including Mandarin and Cantonese)	0.56%
German	0.33%
Tagalog	0.29%
French	0.25%
Korean and Urdu (tied)	0.24%
Hindi	0.23%
Arabic	0.21%
Niger-Congo languages of West Africa (Ibo, Kru, and Yoruba)	0.15%

As of 2010, 65.8% (14,740,304) of Texas residents age 5 and older spoke only English at home, while 29.2% (6,543,702) spoke Spanish, 0.75 percent (168,886) Vietnamese, and Chinese (which includes Cantonese and Mandarin) was spoken by 0.56% (122,921) of the population over the age of five.^[244]

Other languages spoken include German (including Texas German) by 0.33% (73,137,) Tagalog with 0.29% (73,137) speakers, and French (including Cajun French) was spoken by 0.25% (55,773) of Texans.^[244] Reportedly, Cherokee is the most widely spoken Native American language in Texas.^[245]

In total, 34.2% (7,660,406) of Texas's population aged five and older spoke a language at home other than English.^[244]

Religion

Religious affiliation in Texas (2014)^[246]

Affiliation	% of Texas population
Christian	77	77
Protestant	50	50
Evangelical Protestant	31	31
Mainline Protestant	13	13
Black church	6	6
Catholic	23	23
Mormon	1	1
Jehovah's Witnesses	1	1
Eastern Orthodox	0.5	0.5
Other Christian	1	1
Unaffiliated	18	18
Nothing in particular	13	13
Agnostic	3	3
Atheist	2	2
Non-Christian faiths	4	4
Jewish	1	1
Muslim	1	1
Buddhist	1	1
Hindu	0.5	0.5
Other Non-Christian faiths	0.5	0.5
Don't know/refused answer	0.5	0.5
Total	100	100

The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2010 were the Roman Catholic Church (4,673,500); the Southern Baptist Convention (3,721,318); the United Methodist Church with (1,035,168); and Islam (421,972).^[247]

Known as the buckle of the Bible Belt, East Texas is socially conservative.^[248] The Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex is home to three major evangelical seminaries and a host of Bible schools. Lakewood Church in Houston, boasts the largest attendance in the nation averaging more than 43,000 weekly.^[249]

Adherents of many other religions reside predominantly in the urban centers of Texas. In 1990, the Islamic population was about 140,000 with more recent figures putting the current number of Muslims between 350,000 and 400,000.^[250] The Jewish population is around 128,000.^[251] Around 146,000 adherents of religions such as Hinduism and Sikhism live in Texas.^[252] It is the fifth-largest Muslim-populated state in the country.^[253]

Culture

Historically, Texas culture comes from a blend of Southern (Dixie), Western (frontier), and Southwestern (Mexican/Anglo fusion) influences, varying in degrees of such from one intrastate region to another. Texas is placed in the Southern United States by the United States Census Bureau.^[254] A popular food item, the breakfast burrito, draws from all three, having a soft flour tortilla wrapped around bacon and scrambled eggs or other hot, cooked fillings. Adding to Texas's traditional culture, established in the 18th and 19th centuries, immigration has made Texas a melting pot of cultures from around the world.

Texas has made a strong mark on national and international pop culture. The entire state is strongly associated with the image of the cowboy shown in westerns and in country western music. The state's numerous oil tycoons are also a popular pop culture topic as seen in the hit TV series Dallas.

The internationally known slogan "Don't Mess with Texas" began as an anti-littering advertisement. Since the campaign's inception in 1986, the phrase has become "an identity statement, a declaration of Texas swagger".^[255]

Texas self-perception

"Texas-sized" is an expression that can be used in two ways: to describe something that is about the size of the U.S. state of Texas,^[256][257] or to describe something (usually but not always originating from Texas) that is large compared to other objects of its type.^{[258][259][260]} Texas was the largest U.S. state, until Alaska became a state in 1959. The phrase "everything is bigger in Texas" has been in regular use since at least 1950;^[261] and was used as early as 1913.^[262]

Arts

Houston is one of only five American cities with permanent professional resident companies in all of the major performing arts disciplines: the Houston Grand Opera, the Houston Symphony Orchestra, the Houston Ballet, and The Alley Theatre.^[263] Known for the vibrancy of its visual and performing arts, the Houston Theater District—a 17-block area in the heart of Downtown Houston— ranks second in the country in the number of theater seats in a concentrated downtown area, with 12,948 seats for live performances and 1,480 movie seats.^[263]

Founded in 1892, Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth, also called "The Modern", is Texas's oldest art museum. Fort Worth also has the Kimbell Art Museum, the Amon Carter Museum, the National Cowgirl Museum and Hall of Fame, the Will Rogers Memorial Center, and the Bass Performance Hall downtown. The Arts District of Downtown Dallas has arts venues such as the Dallas Museum of Art, the Morton H. Meyerson Symphony Center, the Margot and Bill Winspear Opera House, the Trammell & Margaret Crow Collection of Asian Art, and the Nasher Sculpture Center.^[264]

The Deep Ellum district within Dallas became popular during the 1920s and 1930s as the prime jazz and blues hotspot in the Southern United States. The name Deep Ellum comes from local people pronouncing "Deep Elm" as "Deep Ellum".^[265] Artists such as Blind Lemon Jefferson, Robert Johnson, Huddie "Lead Belly" Ledbetter, and Bessie Smith played in early Deep Ellum clubs.^[266]

Austin, The Live Music Capital of the World, boasts "more live music venues per capita than such music hotbeds as Nashville, Memphis, Los Angeles, Las Vegas or New York City".^[267] The city's music revolves around the nightclubs on 6th Street; events like the film, music, and multimedia festival South by Southwest; the longest-running concert music program on American television, Austin City Limits; and the Austin City Limits Music Festival held in Zilker Park.^[268]

Since 1980, San Antonio has evolved into "The Tejano Music Capital Of The World".^[269] The Tejano Music Awards have provided a forum to create greater awareness and appreciation for Tejano music and culture.^[270]

Education

The second president of the Republic of Texas, Mirabeau B. Lamar, is the Father of Texas Education. During his term, the state set aside three leagues of land in each county for equipping public schools. An additional 50 leagues of land set aside for the support of two universities would later become the basis of the state's Permanent University Fund.^[271] Lamar's actions set the foundation for a Texas-wide public school system.^[272]
Between 2006 and 2007, Texas spent $7,275 per pupil ranking it below the national average of $9,389. The pupil/teacher ratio was 14.9, below the national average of 15.3. Texas paid instructors $41,744, below the national average of $46,593. The Texas Education Agency (TEA) administers the state's public school systems. Texas has over 1,000 school districts; all districts except the Stafford Municipal School District are independent from municipal government and many cross city boundaries.^[273] School districts have the power to tax their residents and to assert eminent domain over privately owned property. Due to court-mandated equitable school financing for school districts, the state has a controversial tax redistribution system called the "Robin Hood plan". This plan transfers property tax revenue from wealthy school districts to poor ones.^[274] The TEA has no authority over private or home school activities.^[275]

Students in Texas take the State of Texas Assessments of Academic Readiness (STAAR) in primary and secondary school. STAAR assess students' attainment of reading, writing, mathematics, science, and social studies skills required under Texas education standards and the No Child Left Behind Act. The test replaced the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) test in the 2011–2012 school year.^[276]

Although unusual in the West, school corporal punishment is not uncommon in more conservative areas of the state, with 28,569 public school students^[277]paddled at least one time, according to government data for the 2011–2012 school year.^[278] The rate of school corporal punishment in Texas is surpassed only by Mississippi, Alabama, and Arkansas.^[278]

Higher education

The state's two most widely recognized flagship universities are The University of Texas at Austin and Texas A&M University, ranked as the 52nd^[279] and 69th^[280] best universities in the nation according to the 2014 edition of U.S. News & World Report's "Best Colleges", respectively. Some observers^[281] also include the University of Houston and Texas Tech University as tier one flagships alongside UT Austin and A&M.^[282][283] The Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board (THECB) ranks the state's public universities into three distinct tiers:^[284]

• National Research Universities (Tier 1)^[285]
  
  
  • The University of Texas at Austin
  
  
  • Texas A&M University
  
  
  • Texas Tech University
  
  
  • University of Houston
  
  
  
  


• Emerging Research Universities (Tier 2)^[284]
  
  
  • The University of Texas at Arlington
  
  
  • The University of Texas at Dallas
  
  
  • The University of Texas at El Paso
  
  
  • The University of Texas at San Antonio
  
  
  • The University of North Texas
  
  
  • Texas State University
  
  
  
  


• Comprehensive Universities (Tier 3)^[284]
  • All other public universities (25 in total)
  
  

Texas's controversial alternative affirmative action plan, Texas House Bill 588, guarantees Texas students who graduated in the top 10 percent of their high school class automatic admission to state-funded universities. The bill encourages demographic diversity while avoiding problems stemming from the Hopwood v. Texas (1996) case.

Thirty-six (36) separate and distinct public universities exist in Texas, of which 32 belong to one of the six state university systems.^[286][287] Discovery of minerals on Permanent University Fund land, particularly oil, has helped fund the rapid growth of the state's two largest university systems: the University of Texas System and the Texas A&M System. The four other university systems: the University of Houston System, the University of North Texas System, the Texas State System, and the Texas Tech System are not funded by the Permanent University Fund.

The Carnegie Foundation classifies three of Texas's universities as Tier One research institutions: The University of Texas at Austin, the Texas A&M University, and the University of Houston. The University of Texas at Austin and Texas A&M University are flagship universities of the state of Texas. Both were established by the Texas Constitution and hold stakes in the Permanent University Fund. The state has been putting effort to expand the number of flagship universities by elevating some of its seven institutions designated as "emerging research universities". The two expected to emerge first are the University of Houston and Texas Tech University, likely in that order according to discussions on the House floor of the 82nd Texas Legislature.^[288]

The state is home to various private institutions of higher learning—ranging from liberal arts colleges to a nationally recognized top-tier research university. Rice University in Houston is one of the leading teaching and research universities of the United States and is ranked the nation's 17th-best overall university by U.S. News & World Report.^[289]Trinity University, a private, primarily undergraduate liberal arts university in San Antonio, has ranked first among universities granting primarily bachelor's and select master's degrees in the Western United States for 20 consecutive years by U.S. News.^[290] Private universities include Austin College, Baylor University, University of Mary Hardin–Baylor, and Southwestern University.^{[291][292][293]}

Universities in Texas host three presidential libraries: George Bush Presidential Library at Texas A&M University, the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum at The University of Texas at Austin, and the George W. Bush Presidential Library at Southern Methodist University.

Healthcare

Introduction

In 2017, the United Healthcare Foundation ranked Texas as the 34th healthiest state in the United States.^[294] Obesity, excessive drinking, maternal mortality, infant mortality, and vaccinations are among the major public health issues facing Texas.^[295]

Obesity

Obesity has quickly become a major health issue in Texas.^[296] In 2017, 33.6% of Texas adults were obese as compared to 29.9% of U.S. adults.^[297][298] In 2000 21.7% of adults were obese and in 1990 only 10.7% of adults were obese.^[299] In 2016, 33% of 10-17 year olds in Texas were obese.^[299] When separated out by gender, 34.6% of Texas females and 32.8% of Texas males were obese. ^[300] When separated out by race, 31% of White adults, 41.7% of Black adults, and 37.8% of Hispanic adults were obese in Texas in 2016.^[301] Research shows that an increase in household income is correlated with a decrease in obesity rates.^[302] In 2014, Comptroller Susan Combs found that there are educational achievement patterns as well - 39% of the Texas population with less than a high school education was obese while only 23% of college graduates were obese.^[303] Living in a rural area in Texas is also correlated with higher obesity rates.^[302]

Consequences of obesity

Obesity causes several chronic diseases including heart disease and diabetes.^[304] The three leading causes of death in Texas - heart disease, stroke, and cancer - are all linked to obesity.^[304] Additionally, obesity can cause type 2 diabetes, arteriosclerosis, and hypertension.^[304] In 2010, Texas saw 1,261,654 cases of heart disease and is predicted to see 5,688,482 cases in 2030.^[305] In 2010, Texas saw 1,962,059 cases of diabetes and is predicted to see 2,851,697 cases in 2030.^[305] In 2010, Texas saw 4,300,252 cases of hypertension and is predicted to see 5,689,509 cases in 2030.^[305] In 2010, Texas saw 328,379 cases of obesity-related cancer and is predicted to see 810,806 cases in 2030.

Obesity also has substantial impacts on the economy in Texas. Obesity costs Texas businesses $9.5 billion annually.^[306] 41% of this is due to obesity-related healthcare costs, 17% is due to absenteeism, and 37% is due to presenteeism.^[306]

Obesity treatment

Effective treatment for obesity is known to be expensive and difficult. For childhood obesity, programs tend to focus on creating lifestyle changes including a healthier diet and more exercise.^[307] Studies show that obesity treatment for children should aim more at changing the behavior of the family as a whole, especially the parents.^[308] Comprehensive weight loss programs for children in Texas have had limited success in reducing weight. For example, only 20% of children finish the Weigh of Life Program and many of them are likely to gain the weight back later on.^[309] For adults, surgery is an effective long-term treatment but it comes with several risks and complications.^[310]

Obesity prevention

Environmental factors play a large role in obesity rates.^[311] Studies have shown that people who live in the same socioeconomic contexts in Texas, regardless of race, tend to have similar rates of obesity.^[312] Generally speaking, encouraging healthy habits, raising awareness, and educating people about portion sizes and nutritious requirements can help prevent obesity.^[313] Childhood prevention is key - a child who was overweight at 12 years of age has a 75% chance of being overweight as an adult.^[313]

Obesity policy

In 2003, the Texas School Nutrition Policy Launch set nutrition standards with the intentions of discouraging obesity.^[314] This policy lowered the availability of foods of minimal nutritional value in schools, limited portion sizes, limited trans fats, and limited fried foods.^[314] Texas has also required early childhood education programs to encourage breastfeeding, provide drinking water access, and provide daily physical activity.^[314] The state also has a fund specifically for financing healthy food.^[314] In 2013, the Obesity Prevention Program was created after merging the Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Obesity Prevention (NPAOP) and Worksite Wellness Programs.^[315] This program supports healthy eating, physical activity, and policies that promote healthier lifestyles.

Alcohol Use

The most commonly abused substance in Texas is alcohol. ^[316] The rate of binge drinking in males in Texas is comparable to that of males in the United States. In 2017, 22.4% of adult males in Texas reported binge drinking, as compared to 22.1% of males in the United States.^[317] Less than 12% of females adults in Texas reported binge drinking. ^[318]Alcohol abuse and alcoholism can lead to a variety of health issues including liver damage, heart problems, cancer, and depression. ^[319] Further, 61% of high school students in Texas have tried alcohol and 17% of Texas high school students had their first drink before the age of 13. ^[320]

Alcohol Policy

The Texas Ignition Interlock Law went into effect during September 2015. This law requires judges to order ignition interlocks for all drunk-drivers with a Blood Alcohol Level of 0.15% or greater. ^[321] Since the passing of this law, the drunk driving related death rate in Texas has decreased by 8.5%. ^[322]

Maternal Health

Texas has the highest maternal mortality rate in the developed world, and the rate by which Texas women died from pregnancy related complications doubled from 2010 to 2014, to 23.8 per 100,000. A rate unmatched in any other U.S. state or economically developed country.^[323] See Maternal healthcare in Texas.

Infant Health

Texas has the seventh highest birth rate in the United States, with nearly 400,000 babies born each year. ^[324][325] Over half of all Texas births are paid by Medicaid, totaling over $2.2 billion per year in birth and delivery-related services for mothers and infants.^[326] Studies have found that infant mortality is usually caused by birth defects, pre-term birth, low birth weight, Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, and pregnancy complications.^[327] The average amount spent in the first year of life for a preterm birth with major complications (excluding extreme prematurity) is $19,059, and $4,019 for a preterm birth without major complications compared to $410 for an uncomplicated, term birth. ^[328]

Rates of infant mortality

For decades the infant mortality rate in Texas was higher than the nationwide rate but that gap has slowly closed. In 2017, the infant mortality rate in Texas was identical to the nationwide rate: 5.9 deaths per 1,000 live births. ^[329] This rate is not identical across the state of Texas and studies have found significant disparities between zip codes.^[330] For example, the 76164 zip code has an infant mortality rate of 12.3 deaths per 1,000 live births while the neighboring 76107 zip code has a rate of 1.8 deaths per 1,000 live births.^[331] Additionally, Black families in Texas are disproportionately burdened by these rates. In 2015, the infant mortality rate for Black babies in Texas was 10.9 deaths per 1,000 births. ^[332] These disparities can be explained by factors such as socioeconomic status, air pollution, and access to health care. ^[331]

Preterm birth

A birth is considered preterm when it takes place more than 3 weeks before the estimated due date.^[333] Preterm birth rates in Texas are consistently higher than the nationwide rate. In 2016, 10.4% of live births in Texas were preterm.^[334] The rate for Black mothers specifically was elevated - 13.6%.^[335] Numerous factors have been associated with premature birth, including lack of prenatal care,  race, obesity, smoking, and even air pollution.^[336]

Low birth weight

A low birth weight is less than 2500 grams.^[337] The rate of low birth weight in Texas has always been higher than the nationwide rate. In 2016, 8.4% of live births in Texas had a low birth weight.^[337] The rate for Black mothers specifically was 13.5%.^[337] Babies of mothers who do not get prenatal care are 3 times more likely to have a low birth weight and 5 times more likely to die than those born to mothers who do get care.^[338] As for long-term complications, low birth weight babies are at a higher risk for cerebral palsy, blindness, deafness, and developmental delay.^[339]

Prenatal care

Prenatal care is the best way to prevent preterm births and low birth weight babies.^[340]  Unfortunately, in 2016 only 65% of pregnant women in Texas had access to prenatal care in their first trimester.^[341] Women being unaware of their pregnancies, economic hardship due to inability to work during pregnancy, lack of knowledge or access to health services, and difficulty finding transportation are contributing factors to this alarmingly low rate.^[342] Texas has also seen significant disparities in who receives prenatal care - 75% of White women and only 55% of Black women received prenatal care during their first trimester.^[341] Although women covered by Medicaid are supposed to automatically transition into the Healthy Texas Women program for postpartum coverage, this transition does not always take place.^[343]

Vaccinations

In 2017, 67.8% of children age 35 months in Texas completed the recommended vaccination schedule.^[344] The highest individual vaccine rate was for the polio virus: 93.1% of children age 35 months in Texas received this vaccine.^[344] The lowest individual vaccine rate was for hepatitis A: 62.6% of children age 35 months in Texas received this vaccine. ^[344] Some children are under-vaccinated due to issues with accessing preventative care, vaccine delivery, or parental choice.^[345] The state has started to implement ImmTrac, a free vaccination record system.^[346]

Vaccination Policy

In 2013, Texas passed legislation that requires employees of child-care facilities to have certain vaccinations, unless the employee objects for reasons of conscience.^[347] Texas has allowed for parents to exempt their children from vaccines by citing medical reasons since 1972. Further, Texas has allowed for parents to exempt their children from vaccines on the basis of religious belief since 2003.^[348]

Medical research

Texas has many research medical centers. The state has nine medical schools,^[349] three dental schools,^[350] and two optometry schools.^[351] Texas has two Biosafety Level 4 (BSL-4) laboratories: one at The University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB) in Galveston,^[352] and the other at the Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research in San Antonio—the first privately owned BSL-4 lab in the United States.^[353]

The Texas Medical Center in Houston, holds the world's largest concentration of research and healthcare institutions, with 47 member institutions.^[354] Texas Medical Center performs the most heart transplants in the world.^[355] The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center in Houston is a highly regarded academic institution that centers around cancer patient care, research, education and prevention.^[356]

San Antonio's South Texas Medical Center facilities rank sixth in clinical medicine research impact in the United States.^[357] The University of Texas Health Science Center is another highly ranked research and educational institution in San Antonio.^[358][359]

Both the American Heart Association and the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center call Dallas home. The Southwestern Medical Center ranks "among the top academic medical centers in the world".^[360] The institution's medical school employs the most medical school Nobel laureates in the world.^[360][361]

Legislative Responses

The Trust for America's Health ranked Texas 15th highest in adult obesity, with 27.2 percent of the state's population measured as obese.^[362] The 2008 Men's Health obesity survey ranked four Texas cities among the top 25 fattest cities in America; Houston ranked 6th, Dallas 7th, El Paso 8th, and Arlington 14th.^[363] Texas had only one city, Austin, ranked 21st, in the top 25 among the "fittest cities" in America.^[363] The same survey has evaluated the state's obesity initiatives favorably with a "B+".^[363] The state is ranked forty-second in the percentage of residents who engage in regular exercise.^[364]

Notwithstanding the concentration of elite medical centers in the state, The Commonwealth Fund ranks the Texas healthcare system the third worst in the nation.^[365] Texas ranks close to last in access to healthcare, quality of care, avoidable hospital spending, and equity among various groups.^[365] Causes of the state's poor rankings include politics, a high poverty rate, and the highest rate of illegal immigration in the nation.^[205] In May 2006, Texas initiated the program "code red" in response to the report the state had 25.1 percent of the population without health insurance, the largest proportion in the nation.^[366]Research shows that adolescents who see alcohol use in advertisements, television shows, and movies are more likely to start drinking alcohol at a younger age. Drinking at a young age is correlated with long-term alcohol abuse. ^[367]

Transportation

Texans have historically had difficulties traversing Texas due to the state's large size and rough terrain. Texas has compensated by building both America's largest highway and railway systems in length. The regulatory authority, the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) maintains the state's immense highway system, regulates aviation,^[368] and public transportation systems.^[369]

Located centrally in North America, the state is an important transportation hub. From the Dallas/Fort Worth area, trucks can reach 93 percent of the nation's population within 48 hours, and 37 percent within 24 hours.^[370] Texas has 33 foreign trade zones (FTZ), the most in the nation.^[371] In 2004, a combined total of $298 billion of goods passed through Texas FTZs.^[371]

Highways

The first Texas freeway was the Gulf Freeway opened in 1948 in Houston.^[372] As of 2005, 79,535 miles (127,999 km) of public highway crisscrossed Texas (up from 71,000 miles (114,263 km) in 1984).^[373] To fund recent growth in the state highways, Texas has 17 toll roads (see list) with several additional tollways proposed.^[374] In central Texas, the southern section of the State Highway 130 toll road has a speed limit of 85 miles per hour (137 km/h), the highest in the nation.^[375] All federal and state highways in Texas are paved.

Airports

Texas has 730 airports, second-most of any state in the nation. Largest in Texas by size and passengers served, Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport (DFW) is the second-largest by area in the United States, and fourth in the world with 18,076 acres (73.15 km²).^[376] In traffic, DFW airport is the busiest in the state, the fourth busiest in the United States,^[377] and sixth worldwide.^[378]American Airlines Group's American / American Eagle, the world's largest airline in total passengers-miles transported and passenger fleet size,^[379] uses DFW as its largest and main hub. It ranks as the largest airline in the United States by number of passengers carried domestically per year and the largest airline in the world by number of passengers carried.^[380]Southwest Airlines, headquartered in Dallas, has its operations at Dallas Love Field.^[381]

Texas's second-largest air facility is Houston's George Bush Intercontinental Airport (IAH). It served as the largest hub for the former Continental Airlines, which was based in Houston; it serves as the largest hub for United Airlines, the world's third-largest airline, by passenger-miles flown.^[382][383] IAH offers service to the most Mexican destinations of any U.S. airport.^[384][385] The next five largest airports in the state all serve over 3 million passengers annually; they include Austin-Bergstrom International Airport, William P. Hobby Airport, San Antonio International Airport, Dallas Love Field and El Paso International Airport. The smallest airport in the state to be designated an international airport is Del Rio International Airport.

Ports

Around 1,150 seaports dot Texas's coast with over 1,000 miles (1,600 km) of channels.^[386] Ports employ nearly one-million people and handle an average of 317 million metric tons.^[387] Texas ports connect with the rest of the U.S. Atlantic seaboard with the Gulf section of the Intracoastal Waterway.^[386] The Port of Houston today is the busiest port in the United States in foreign tonnage, second in overall tonnage, and tenth worldwide in tonnage.^[388] The Houston Ship Channel spans 530 feet (160 m) wide by 45 feet (14 m) deep by 50 miles (80 km) long.^[389]

Railroads

Part of the state's tradition of cowboys is derived from the massive cattle drives which its ranchers organized in the nineteenth century to drive livestock to railroads and markets in Kansas, for shipment to the East. Towns along the way, such as Baxter Springs, the first cow town in Kansas, developed to handle the seasonal workers and tens of thousands of head of cattle being driven.

The first railroad to operate in Texas was the Buffalo Bayou, Brazos and Colorado Railway, opening in August 1853.^[390] The first railroad to enter Texas from the north, completed in 1872, was the Missouri–Kansas–Texas Railroad.^[391] With increasing railroad access, the ranchers did not have to take their livestock up to the Midwest, and shipped beef out from Texas. This caused a decline in the economies of the cow towns.

Since 1911, Texas has led the nation in length of railroad miles within the state. Texas railway length peaked in 1932 at 17,078 miles (27,484 km), but declined to 14,006 miles (22,540 km) by 2000. While the Railroad Commission of Texas originally regulated state railroads, in 2005 the state reassigned these duties to TxDOT.^[392]

Both Dallas and Houston feature light rail systems. Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) built the first light rail system in the Southwest United States, completed in 1996.^[393]
The Trinity Railway Express (TRE) commuter rail service, which connects Fort Worth and Dallas, is provided by the Fort Worth Transportation Authority (the T) and DART.^[394] In the Austin area, Capital Metropolitan Transportation Authority operates a commuter rail service known as Capital MetroRail to the northwestern suburbs. The Metropolitan Transit Authority of Harris County, Texas (METRO) operates light rail lines in the Houston area.

Amtrak provides Texas with limited intercity passenger rail service. Three scheduled routes serve the state: the daily Texas Eagle (Chicago–San Antonio); the tri-weekly Sunset Limited (New Orleans–Los Angeles), with stops in Texas; and the daily Heartland Flyer (Fort Worth–Oklahoma City).

• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Terminal D at DFW Airport in Dallas.
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Terminal E at George Bush Intercontinental Airport in Houston.
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Port of Houston along the Houston Ship Channel
  

  
  

  
  

• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  METRORail in Houston
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  DART Rail in Dallas
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Capital MetroRail in Austin
  

  
  

  
  

Sports

While American football has long been considered "king" in the state, Texans enjoy a wide variety of sports.^[395]

Texans can cheer for a plethora of professional sports teams. Within the "Big Four" professional leagues, Texas has two NFL teams (the Dallas Cowboys and the Houston Texans), two Major League Baseball teams (the Houston Astros and the Texas Rangers), three NBA teams (the San Antonio Spurs, the Houston Rockets, and the Dallas Mavericks), and one National Hockey League team (the Dallas Stars). The Dallas – Fort Worth Metroplex is one of only twelve American metropolitan areas that hosts sports teams from all the "Big Four" professional leagues. Outside of the "Big Four" leagues, Texas also has a WNBA team, (the Dallas Wings) and two Major League Soccer teams (the Houston Dynamo and FC Dallas).

Collegiate athletics have deep significance in Texas culture, especially football. The state has twelve Division I-FBS schools, the most in the nation. Four of the state's universities, the Baylor Bears, Texas Longhorns, TCU Horned Frogs, and Texas Tech Red Raiders, compete in the Big 12 Conference. The Texas A&M Aggies left the Big 12 and joined the Southeastern Conference in 2012, which led the Big 12 to invite TCU to join; TCU was previously in the Mountain West Conference. The Houston Cougars and the SMU Mustangs compete in the American Athletic Conference. The Texas State Bobcats and the UT Arlington Mavericks compete in the Sun Belt Conference. Four of the state's schools claim at least one national championship in football: the Texas Longhorns, the Texas A&M Aggies, the TCU Horned Frogs, and the SMU Mustangs.

According to a survey of Division I-A coaches the rivalry between the University of Oklahoma and the University of Texas at Austin, the Red River Shootout, ranks the third best in the nation.^[396] The TCU Horned Frogs and SMU Mustangs also share a rivalry and compete annually in the Battle for the Iron Skillet. A fierce rivalry, the Lone Star Showdown, also exists between the state's two largest universities, Texas A&M University and the University of Texas at Austin. The athletics portion of the Lone Star Showdown rivalry has been put on hold after the Texas A&M Aggies joined the Southeastern Conference.

The University Interscholastic League (UIL) organizes most primary and secondary school competitions. Events organized by UIL include contests in athletics (the most popular being high school football) as well as artistic and academic subjects.^[397]

Texans also enjoy the rodeo. The world's first rodeo was hosted in Pecos, Texas.^[398] The annual Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo is the largest rodeo in the world. It begins with trail rides that begin from several points throughout the state that convene at Reliant Park.^[399] The Southwestern Exposition and Livestock Show in Fort Worth is the oldest continuously running rodeo incorporating many of the state's most historic traditions into its annual events. Dallas hosts the State Fair of Texas each year at Fair Park.^[400]

Texas Motor Speedway hosts annual NASCAR Cup Series and IndyCar Series auto races since 1997. Since 2012, Austin's Circuit of the Americas plays host to a round of the Formula 1 World Championship^[401] —the first at a permanent road circuit in the United States since the 1980 Grand Prix at Watkins Glen International—, as well as Grand Prix motorcycle racing, FIA World Endurance Championship and United SportsCar Championship races.

• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  AT&T Stadium, home of the Dallas Cowboys
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Playoff game between the San Antonio Spurs and the Los Angeles Lakers in 2007
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Globe Life Park in Arlington, home of the Texas Rangers
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  BBVA Compass Stadium, home of the Houston Dynamo
  

  
  

  
  

See also

• Index of Texas-related articles


• 
  Outline of Texas – organized list of topics about Texas

Notes

References

Bibliography

.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{list-style-type:none;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>dl>dd{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-100{font-size:100%}

External links

• 
  Texas at Curlie
  


• The Texas State History Museum


• 
  The Handbook of Texas Online—Published by the Texas State Historical Association
  


• 
  Texas Register, hosted by the University of North Texas Libraries
  


• South and West Texas: A National Register of Historic Places Travel Itinerary


• 
  Texas Heritage Society^{[permanent dead link]}
  


• 
  Geographic data related to Texas at OpenStreetMap
  


• View historical photographs at the University of Houston Digital Library.


• Oklahoma Digital Maps: Digital Collections of Oklahoma and Indian Territory

State government

• The State of Texas


• 
  Texas State Databases—Annotated list of searchable databases produced by Texas state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association.


• 
  Texas Politics. An online textbook from the College of Liberal Arts, The University of Texas.

U.S. Government

• Energy Profile for Texas- Economic, environmental, and energy data


• USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Texas


• Texas State Facts from USDA


• South and West Texas, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary

Preceded by Florida

List of U.S. states by date of statehood Admitted on December 29, 1845 (28th)

Succeeded by Iowa

Coordinates: 31°N 100°W / 31°N 100°W / 31; -100