Ykhjuy

Judaeo-Spanish
Ladino
judeoespañol español judió / jidió djudeo-espanyol espanyol djudyo/djidyo גֿידֿייו / גֿודֿייו‎ איספאנייול‎ גֿודֿיאו-איספאנייול‎ ђудео-еспањол еспањол ђудjо / ђидjо τζ̲ουδεο-εσπανιολ εσπανιολ τζ̲ουδεο جوديو-اسپانيول‎ اسپانيول‎ جوديو‎
Judeoespañol in Solitreo and Rashi scripts
Pronunciation	[dʒuˈðeo͜ s.paˈɲol] (listen)[a]
Native to	Israel, Turkey, United States, France, Greece, Brazil, United Kingdom, Morocco, Bulgaria, Italy, Canada, Mexico, Argentina, Uruguay, Serbia, Bosnia Herzegovina, Macedonia, Tunisia, Belgium, South Africa, Spain and others
Region	Mediterranean Basin (native region), North America, Western Europe and South America
Ethnicity	Sephardic Jews and Sabbateans
Native speakers	100,000 in Israel (2005)[1] 10,000 in Turkey and 12,000 elsewhere (2007)[1] 60,000[2] - 400,000[3] total speakers
Language family	Indo-European Italic Romance Western Gallo-Iberian Ibero-Romance West Iberian Castilian languages Judaeo-Spanish
Dialects	South-eastern (Istanbul, Salonica) North-eastern North-western (Sarajevo) Haketia (Tangier, Tétouan)[4]
Writing system	mainly Latin alphabet; also the original Hebrew (normally using Rashi or Solitreo) and Cyrillic; rarely Greek & Arabic
Official status
Recognised minority language in	Bosnia and Herzegovina  France  Israel  Turkey
Language codes
ISO 639-2	lad Ladino
ISO 639-3	lad Ladino
Linguist List	lad Ladino[5]
Glottolog	ladi1251  Ladino[6]
Linguasphere	51-AAB-ba … 51-AAB-bd
IETF	lad
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For a guide to IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Judaeo-Spanish or Judeo-Spanish (judeoespañol, Hebrew script: גﬞודﬞיאו־‬איספאנייול‎, Cyrillic: Ђудео-Еспањол^[7]), commonly referred to as Ladino, is a Romance language derived from Old Spanish. Originally spoken in Spain and then after the Edict of Expulsion spreading through the former territories of the Ottoman Empire (the Balkans, Turkey, the Middle East, and North Africa) as well as France, Italy, the Netherlands, Morocco, and the United Kingdom, it is today spoken mainly by Sephardic minorities in more than 30 countries, with most of the speakers residing in Israel. Although it has no official status in any country, it has been acknowledged as a minority language in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Israel, France and Turkey. It is also formally recognised by the Royal Spanish Academy.^[8]

The core vocabulary of Judaeo-Spanish is Old Spanish and it has numerous elements from all the old Romance languages of the Iberian Peninsula: Old Aragonese, Astur-Leonese, Old Catalan, Galician-Portuguese and Mozarabic.^[9] The language has been further enriched by Ottoman Turkish and Semitic vocabulary, such as Hebrew, Aramaic, and Arabic — especially in the domains of religion, law and spirituality — and most of the vocabulary for new and modern concepts has been adopted through French and Italian. Furthermore, the language is influenced to a lesser degree by other local languages of the Balkans, such as Greek, Bulgarian and Serbo-Croatian.

Historically, the Rashi script and its cursive form Solitreo have been the main orthographies for writing Judaeo-Spanish. However today, it is mainly written with the Latin alphabet, though some other alphabets such as Hebrew and Cyrillic are still in use. Judaeo-Spanish is known by many different names, mostly: Español/Espanyol, Judió/Djudyo (or Jidió/Djidyo), Judesmo/Djudezmo, Sefaradhí/Sefaradi and Ḥaketía/Haketia. In Turkey and formerly in the Ottoman Empire, it has been traditionally called Yahudice in Turkish, meaning the Jewish language. In Israel, Hebrew speakers usually call the language (E)spanyolit or Ladino.

Judaeo-Spanish, once the trade language of the Adriatic Sea, the Balkans and the Middle-East and renowned for its rich literature especially in Salonika, today is under serious threat of extinction. Most native speakers are elderly, and the language is not transmitted to their children or grandchildren for various reasons. In some expatriate communities in Latin America and elsewhere, there is a threat of dialect levelling resulting in extinction by assimilation into modern Spanish. It is experiencing, however, a minor revival among Sephardic communities, especially in music.

Name

In recent decades in Israel, the United States and Spain, the language has come to be referred to as Ladino (.mw-parser-output .script-Cprt{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Segoe UI Historic","Noto Sans Cypriot",Code2001}.mw-parser-output .script-Hano{font-size:125%;font-family:"Noto Sans Hanunoo","FreeSerif",Quivira}.mw-parser-output .script-Latf,.mw-parser-output .script-de-Latf{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Breitkopf Fraktur",UnifrakturCook,UniFrakturMaguntia,"MarsFraktur","MarsFraktur OT","KochFraktur","KochFraktur OT","OffenbacherSchwabOT","LOB.AlteSchwabacher","LOV.AlteSchwabacher","LOB.AtlantisFraktur","LOV.AtlantisFraktur","LOB.BreitkopfFraktur","LOV.BreitkopfFraktur","LOB.FetteFraktur","LOV.FetteFraktur","LOB.Fraktur3","LOV.Fraktur3","LOB.RochFraktur","LOV.RochFraktur","LOB.PostFraktur","LOV.PostFraktur","LOB.RuelhscheFraktur","LOV.RuelhscheFraktur","LOB.RungholtFraktur","LOV.RungholtFraktur","LOB.TheuerbankFraktur","LOV.TheuerbankFraktur","LOB.VinetaFraktur","LOV.VinetaFraktur","LOB.WalbaumFraktur","LOV.WalbaumFraktur","LOB.WeberMainzerFraktur","LOV.WeberMainzerFraktur","LOB.WieynckFraktur","LOV.WieynckFraktur","LOB.ZentenarFraktur","LOV.ZentenarFraktur"}.mw-parser-output .script-en-Latf{font-size:1.25em;font-family:Cankama,"Old English Text MT","Textura Libera","Textura Libera Tenuis",London}.mw-parser-output .script-it-Latf{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Rotunda Pommerania",Rotunda,"Typographer Rotunda"}.mw-parser-output .script-Lina{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Noto Sans Linear A"}.mw-parser-output .script-Linb{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Noto Sans Linear B"}.mw-parser-output .script-Ugar{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Segoe UI Historic","Noto Sans Ugaritic",Aegean}.mw-parser-output .script-Xpeo{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Segoe UI Historic",Noto Sans Old Persian,Artaxerxes,Xerxes,Aegean}לאדינו), literally meaning "Latin". However, some of its speakers consider that term to be incorrect.^[10] The language is also called judeo-espagnol,^{[note 1]}judeoespañol,^[11]Sefardí, Judío, and Espanyol or Español sefardita; Haquetía (from the Arabic ħaka حكى‎, "tell") refers to the dialect of North Africa, especially Morocco. Spoken Ladino may also be referred to as Djudesmo.^[12] The dialect of the Oran area of Algeria was called Tetuani, after the Moroccan city of Tétouan since many Orani Jews came from there. In Hebrew, the language is called Spanyolit.

An entry in Ethnologue claims, "The name 'Judesmo' is used by Jewish linguists and Turkish Jews and American Jews; 'Judeo-Spanish' by Romance philologists; 'Ladino' by laymen, especially in Israel; 'Haketia' by Moroccan Jews; 'Spanyol' by some others."^[13] That does not reflect the historical usage. In the Judeo-Spanish press of the 19th and 20th centuries the native authors referred to the language exclusively as Espanyol, which was also the name that its native speakers spontaneously gave to it for as long as it was their primary spoken language. More rarely, the bookish Judeo-Espanyol has also been used since the late 19th century.^[14] The term Judezmo is unknown and offensive to most native speakers, and it has never been used in print in the native press. However, in limited parts of Macedonia, its former use in the past as a low-register designation in informal speech by unschooled people has been documented.^{[citation needed]}

The derivation of the name Ladino is complicated. Before the Expulsion of Jews from Spain, the word meant literary Spanish, as opposed to other dialects^{[citation needed]} or Romance in general, as distinct from Arabic.^[15] (The first European language grammar and dictionary, of Spanish, referred to it as ladino or ladina. In the Middle Ages, the word Latin was frequently used to mean simply "language", particularly one understood: a latiner or latimer meant a translator.) Following the Expulsion, Jews spoke of "the Ladino" to mean the traditional oral translation of the Bible into Old Spanish. By extension, it came to mean that style of Spanish generally in the same way that (among Kurdish Jews) Targum has come to mean Judeo-Aramaic and (among Jews of Arabic-speaking background) sharħ has come to mean Judeo-Arabic.^[16]

Informally, especially in modern Israel, many speakers use Ladino to mean Judaeo-Spanish as a whole. The language used to be regulated by a body called the Autoridad Nasionala del Ladino in Israel. More strictly, however, the term is confined to the style used in translation. According to the website of the Jewish Museum of Thessaloniki,

Ladino is not spoken, rather, it is the product of a word-for-word translation of Hebrew or Aramaic biblical or liturgical texts made by rabbis in the Jewish schools of Spain. In these translations, a specific Hebrew or Aramaic word always corresponded to the same Spanish word, as long as no exegetical considerations prevented this. In short, Ladino is only Hebrew clothed in Spanish, or Spanish with Hebrew syntax. The famous Ladino translation of the Bible, the Biblia de Ferrara (1553), provided inspiration for the translation of numerous Spanish Christian Bibles."^[10]

That Judaeo-Spanish ladino should not be confused with the ladino or Ladin language spoken in part of Northeastern Italy, which is closely related to the Romansh language of Swiss Grisons (it is disputed whether or not they form a common Rhaeto-Romance language) and has nothing to do with either Jews or Spanish beyond being a Romance language, a property that they share with French, Italian, Portuguese and Romanian.

In modern Spanish, the Royal Spanish Academy gives "Ladino" nine meanings, including five as an adjective and four as a noun, but two are obsolete:

1. Adj. Astute, sagacious, cunning

2. Adj. Pertaining or relating to the Ladin language.

3. Adj. In El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama, describing a mestizo person who speaks only Spanish.

4. Adj. In El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama, a Mestizo person.

5. Adj. Obsolete: A person with facility in languages other than his/her own.

6. Noun. The Ladin language spoken in South Tyrol.

7. Noun. The religious language of Sephardic Jews.

8. Noun. Judeo-Spanish.

9. Noun. Obsolete: The archaic literary form of Spanish called "romance" or "romantic Spanish".^[17]

Origins

At the time of the expulsion from Spain, the day-to-day language of the Jews of different regions of the peninsula was hardly, if at all, different from that of their Christian neighbours, but there may have been some dialect mixing to form a sort of Jewish lingua franca. There was however, a special style of Spanish used for purposes of study or translation, featuring a more archaic dialect, a large number of Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords and a tendency to render Hebrew word order literally (ha-laylah ha-zeh, meaning "this night", was rendered la noche la esta instead of the normal Spanish esta noche^[18]). As mentioned above, some authorities would confine the term "Ladino" to that style.^[19]

Following the Expulsion, the process of dialect mixing continued, but Castilian Spanish remained by far the largest contributor. The daily language was increasingly influenced both by the language of study and by the local non-Jewish vernaculars, such as Greek and Turkish. It came to be known as Judesmo and, in that respect, the development is parallel to that of Yiddish. However, many speakers, especially among the community leaders, also had command of a more formal style, castellano, which was nearer to the Spanish at the time of the Expulsion.

Source languages

Spanish

The grammar, the phonology and about 60% of the vocabulary of Judaeo-Spanish are basically Spanish but, in some respects, it resembles the dialects in southern Spain and South America, rather than the dialects of Central Spain. For example, it has yeísmo ("she" is eya/ella [ˈeja] (Judaeo-Spanish), instead of ella) as well as seseo.

In many respects, it reproduces the Spanish of the time of the Expulsion, rather than the modern variety, as it retains some archaic features such as the following:

• Modern Spanish j, pronounced [x], corresponds to two different phonemes in Old Spanish: x, pronounced /ʃ/, and j, pronounced /ʒ/. Judaeo-Spanish retains the original sounds. Similarly, g before e or i remains [d͡ʒ] or /ʒ/, not [x].
  
  • Contrast baxo/baṣo ("low" or "down", with /ʃ/, modern Spanish bajo) and mujer ("woman" or "wife", spelled the same, with /ʒ/).
  
  


• Modern Spanish z (c before e or i), pronounced [s] or [θ], like the "th" in English "think", corresponds to two different phonemes in Old Spanish: ç (c before e or i), pronounced [ts]; and z (in all positions), pronounced [dz]. In Judaeo-Spanish, they are pronounced [s] and [z], respectively.
  
  • Contrast coraçón/korasón ("heart", with /s/, modern Spanish corazón) and dezir ("to say", with /z/, modern Spanish decir).
  
  


• In modern Spanish, the use of the letters b and v is determined partly on the basis of earlier forms of the language and partly on the basis of Latin etymology: both letters represent one phoneme (/b/), realised as [b] or as [β], according to its position. In Judaeo-Spanish, /b/ and /v/ are different phonemes: voz/boz /bɔs/ voice vs. vos /vɔs/ you. v is a labiodental "v", like in English, rather than a bilabial.

Portuguese and other Iberian languages

However, the phonology of both the consonants and part of the lexicon is, in some respects, closer to Galician-Portuguese and Catalan than to modern Spanish. That is explained by direct influence but also because all three languages retained some of the characteristics of medieval Ibero-Romance languages that Spanish later lost.
There was a mutual influence with the Judaeo-Portuguese of the Portuguese Jews.

Contrast Judaeo-Spanish daínda ("still") with Portuguese ainda (Galician aínda, Asturian aína or enaína) and Spanish aún or the initial consonants in Judaeo-Spanish fija, favla ("daughter", "speech"), Portuguese filha, fala (Galician filla, fala, Asturian fía, fala, Aragonese filla, fabla, Catalan filla), Spanish hija, habla. It sometimes varied with dialect, as in Judaeo-Spanish popular songs, both fijo and hijo ("son") are found.

The Judaeo-Spanish pronunciation of s as "[ʃ]" before a "k" sound or at the end of certain words (such as seis, pronounced [seʃ], for six) is shared with Portuguese (as spoken in Portugal, most of Lusophone Asia and Africa, and in a plurality of Brazilian registers with either partial or total forms of coda |S| palatalization) but not with Spanish.

Hebrew and Aramaic

Like other Jewish vernaculars, Judaeo-Spanish incorporates many Hebrew and Aramaic words, mostly for religious concepts and institutions. Examples are haham/ḥaḥam (rabbi, from Hebrew ḥakham) and kal, kahal/cal, cahal (synagogue, from Hebrew qahal).

Other languages

Judaeo-Spanish has absorbed some words from the local languages but sometimes Hispanicised their form: bilbilico (nightingale), from Persian (via Turkish) bülbül. It may be compared to the Slavic elements in Yiddish. It is not always clear whether some of these words were introduced before the Expulsion because of the large number of Arabic words in Spanish generally.

Phonology

Judaeo-Spanish phonology consists of 27 phonemes: 22 consonants and 5 vowels.

Consonants

Vowels

Phonological differences from Spanish

As exemplified in the Sources section above, much of the phonology of Judaeo-Spanish is similar to that of standard modern Spanish. Here are some exceptions:

• It is claimed that unlike all other non-creole varieties of Spanish, Judaeo-Spanish does not contrast the trill /r/ and the tap/flap /ɾ/.^[21] However, that claim is not universally accepted.^[22]
  


• The Spanish /nue-/ is /mue-/ in some dialects of Judaeo-Spanish: nuevo, nuestro → muevo, muestro.^[21]
  


• The Judaeo-Spanish phoneme inventory includes separate [d͡ʒ] and [ʒ]: jurnal /ʒuɾˈnal/ ('newspaper') vs jugar/djugar /d͡ʒuˈgar/ ('to play'). Neither phoneme is used in modern Spanish.^[21]
  


• There is a tendency to drop [s] at the end of a word or syllable, as in Andalusian Spanish: Dios -> Dio (God), amargasteis -> amargátex/amargatesh (you have embittered). The form Dió, however, is usually explained as an example of folk etymology: taking the s as a plural ending (which it is not) and attributing it to Christian trinitarianism. Thus, removing the s produced a more clearly monotheistic word for God. The noun dio does not exist as a word in any other form of Spanish.

Morphology

Judaeo-Spanish is distinguished from other Spanish dialects by the presence of the following features:

• Judaeo-Spanish maintains the second-person pronouns tú/tu (informal singular), vos (formal singular) and vosotros/vozotros (plural); the third-person él/ella/ellos/ellas / el/eya/eyos/eyas are also used in the formal register.^[21] The Spanish pronouns usted and ustedes do not exist.


• In verbs, the preterite indicates that an action taken once in the past was also completed at some point in the past. That is as opposed to the imperfect, which refers to any continuous, habitual, unfinished or repetitive past action. Thus, "I ate falafel yesterday" would use the first-person preterite form of eat, comí/komí but "When I lived in Izmir, I ran five miles every evening" would use the first-person imperfect form, corría/koria. Though some of the morphology has changed, usage is just as in normative Spanish.


• In general, Judaeo-Spanish uses the Spanish plural morpheme /-(e)s/. The Hebrew plural endings /-im/ and /-ot/ are used with Hebrew loanwords, as well as with a few words from Spanish: ladrón/ladron (thief): ladrones, ladronimm; hermano/ermano (brother): hermanos/hermanim / ermanos/ermanim. ^[23] Similarly, some loaned feminine nouns ending in -á can take either the Spanish or Hebrew plural: quehilá/keilá (synagogue): quehilás/quehilot / keilas/keilot.
  


• Judaeo-Spanish contains more gendering cases than standard Spanish, prominently in adjectives, (grande/-a, inferior/-ra) as well as in nouns (vozas, fuentas) and in the interrogative qualo/quala / kualo/kuala.^[21]
  

Here is the regular conjugation for the present tense:

Regular conjugation in the preterite:

Syntax

Judaeo-Spanish follows Spanish for most of its syntax. (That is not true of the written calque language involving word-for-word translations from Hebrew, which some scholars refer to as Ladino, as described above.) Like Spanish, it generally follows a subject–verb–object word order, has a nominative-accusative alignment, and is considered a fusional or inflected language.

Orthography

The Rashi script, originally used to print the language

The following systems of writing Judaeo-Spanish have been used or proposed.

• Traditionally, especially in Ladino religious texts, Judaeo-Spanish was printed in Hebrew writing (especially in Rashi script), a practice that was very common, possibly almost universal, until the 19th century. That was called aljamiado, by analogy with the equivalent use of the Arabic script. It occasionally persists, especially in religious use. Everyday written records of the language used Solitreo, a semi-cursive script similar to Rashi script that shifted to square letter for Hebrew/Aramaic words. Solitreo is clearly different from the Ashkenazi Cursive Hebrew used today in Israel, but it is also related to Rashi script. (A comparative table is provided in the article on Cursive Hebrew.) Hebrew writing of the language freely uses matres lectionis: final -a is written with .mw-parser-output .script-hebrew,.mw-parser-output .script-Hebr{font-size:1.15em;font-family:"Ezra SIL","Ezra SIL SR","Keter Aram Tsova","Taamey Ashkenaz","Taamey David CLM","Taamey Frank CLM","Frank Ruehl CLM","Keter YG","Shofar","David CLM","Hadasim CLM","Simple CLM","Nachlieli","SBL BibLit","SBL Hebrew",Cardo,Alef,"Noto Serif Hebrew","Noto Sans Hebrew","David Libre",David,"Times New Roman",Gisha,Arial,FreeSerif,FreeSans}
  ה‬ (heh) and
  ו‬ (waw) can represent /o/ or /u/. Both s (/s/) and x (/ʃ/) are generally written with
  ש‬, as
  ס‬ is generally reserved for c before e or i and ç. However, borrowed Hebrew words retain their Hebrew spelling, without vowels.


• The Greek alphabet and the Cyrillic script were used in the past,^[24] but this is rare or nonexistent nowadays.


• In Turkey, Judaeo-Spanish is most commonly written in the Turkish variant of the Latin alphabet. That may be the most widespread system in use today, as following the decimation of Sephardic communities throughout much of Europe (particularly in Greece and the Balkans) during the Holocaust, the greatest proportion of speakers remaining were Turkish Jews. However, the Judaeo-Spanish page of the Turkish Jewish newspaper Şalom now uses the Israeli system.


• The Israeli Autoridad Nasionala del Ladino promotes a phonetic transcription in the Latin alphabet, without making any concessions to Spanish orthography, and uses the transcription in its publication Aki Yerushalayim. The songs Non komo muestro Dio and Por una ninya, below, and the text in the sample paragraph, below, are written using the system.


• Works published in Spain usually adopt the standard orthography of modern Spanish to make them easier for modern Spanish-speaking peoples to read.^[25] The editions often use diacritics to show where the Judaeo-Spanish pronunciation differs from modern Spanish.


• Perhaps more conservative and less popular, others, including Pablo Carvajal Valdés suggest for Judaeo-Spanish to adopt the orthography that was used at the time of the Expulsion.

Aki Yerushalayim orthography

Aki Yerushalayim magazine, owned by Autoridad Nasionala del Ladino, promotes the following orthography:

• A dot is written between s and h (s·h) to represent [sx] to avoid confusion with [ʃ]: es·huenyo [esˈxweɲo] (dream).


• Unlike Spanish, stressed diacritics are not represented.


• Loanwords and foreign names retain their original spelling, and q or w would be used only for such words.

Hebrew orthography

Judaeo-Spanish is traditionally written in a Hebrew-based script, specially in Rashi script. The Hebrew orthography is not regulated, but sounds are generally represented by the following letters:

Square letter	א	ב	ב׳	ג	ג׳	ד	ה	ו	ז	ז׳	ח	ט	י	יי	כ/-ך	ל	מ/-ם	נ/-ן	ניי	ס	ע	פ/-ף	פ׳/-ף׳	צ/-ץ	ק	ר	ש	ת
Rashi letter			׳		׳					׳					/-		/-	/-				/-	׳/-׳	/-
AY equivalent letter	a, Ø, e, o	b	v	g	dj, ch	d	a, e	u, o, v	z	j	h	t	i, e, y	y	k, h	l	m	n	ny	s	Ø, e, a	p	f	(t)s	k	r	sh, s	t

History

In the medieval Iberian peninsula, now Spain and Portugal, Jews spoke a variety of Romance dialects. Following the 1490s expulsion from Spain and Portugal, most the Iberian Jews resettled in the Ottoman Empire. Jews in the Ottoman Balkans, Turkey, Middle East, and North Africa (especially Morocco) developed their own Romance dialects, with some influence from Hebrew and other languages, which became what is now known as Judaeo-Spanish. Later on, many Portuguese Jews also escaped to France, Italy, the Netherlands and England, establishing small groups in those nations as well, but these spoke early modern Spanish or Portuguese rather than Judaeo-Spanish.

Jews in the Middle Ages were instrumental in the development of Spanish into a prestige language. Erudite Jews translated Arabic and Hebrew works, often translated earlier from Greek, into Spanish. Christians translated them again into Latin for transmission to Europe.

Until recent times, the language was widely spoken throughout the Balkans, Turkey, the Middle East and North Africa, as Judaeo-Spanish had been brought there by the Jewish refugees.^[26]

The contact among Jews of different regions and languages, including Catalan, Leonese and Portuguese developed a unified dialect, differing in some aspects from the Spanish norm that was forming simultaneously in Spain, but some of the mixing may have already occurred in exile rather than in the Iberian Peninsula. The language was known as Yahudice (Jewish language) in the Ottoman Empire. In the late 18th century, Ottoman poet Enderunlu Fazıl (Fazyl bin Tahir Enderuni) wrote in his Zenanname: "Castilians speak the Jewish language but they are not Jews."

The closeness and mutual comprehensibility between Judaeo-Spanish and Spanish favoured trade among Sephardim, often relatives, from the Ottoman Empire to the Netherlands and the conversos of the Iberian Peninsula.

Over time, a corpus of literature, both liturgical and secular, developed. Early literature was limited to translations from Hebrew. At the end of the 17th century, Hebrew was disappearing as the vehicle for rabbinic instruction. Thus, a literature appeared in the 18th century, such as Me'am Lo'ez and poetry collections. By the end of the 19th century, the Sephardim in the Ottoman Empire studied in schools of the Alliance Israélite Universelle. French became the language for foreign relations, as it did for Maronites, and Judaeo-Spanish drew from French for neologisms. New. secular genres appeared, with more than 300 journals, history, theatre, biographies.

Given the relative isolation of many communities, a number of regional dialects of Judaeo-Spanish appeared, many with only limited mutual comprehensibility, largely because of the adoption of large numbers of loanwords from the surrounding populations, including, depending on the location of the community, from Greek, Turkish, Arabic and, in the Balkans, Slavic languages, especially Bosnian, Bulgarian and Serbo-Croatian. The borrowing in many Judaeo-Spanish dialects is so heavy that up to 30% of their vocabulary is of non-Spanish origin. Some words also passed from Judaeo-Spanish into neighbouring languages. For example, the word palavra "word" (Vulgar Latin = "parabola"; Greek = "parabole"), passed into Turkish, Greek and Romanian^[27] with the meaning "bunk, hokum, humbug, bullshit" in Turkish and Romanian and "big talk, boastful talk" in Greek (compare the English word "palaver").

Judaeo-Spanish was the common language of Salonika during the Ottoman period. The city became part of Greece in 1912 and was subsequently renamed Thessaloniki. Despite the Great Fire of Thessaloniki, economic oppression by Greek authorities and mass settlement of Christian refugees, the language remained widely spoken in Salonika until the deportation of 50,000 Salonikan Jews in the Holocaust during the Second World War. According to the 1928 census, the language had 62,999 native speakers in Greece. The figure drops down to 53,094 native speakers in 1940, but 21,094 citizens "usually" spoke the language.^[28]

Judaeo-Spanish was also a language used in Donmeh rites (Dönme being a Turkish word for "convert" to refer to adepts of Sabbatai Tsevi converting to Islam in the Ottoman Empire). An example is Sabbatai Tsevi esperamos a ti. Today, the religious practices and the ritual use of Judaeo-Spanish seems confined to elderly generations.

The Castilian colonisation of Northern Africa favoured the role of polyglot Sephards, who bridged between Spanish -colonizers and Arab and Berber speakers.

From the 17th to the 19th centuries, Judaeo-Spanish was the predominant Jewish language in the Holy Land, but its dialect was different in some respects from the one in Greece and Turkey. Some families have lived in Jerusalem for centuries and preserve Judaeo-Spanish for cultural and folklore purposes although they now use Hebrew in everyday life.

An often-told Sephardic anecdote from Bosnia-Herzegovina has it that as a Spanish consulate was opened in Sarajevo in the interwar period, two Sephardic women passed by. Upon hearing a Catholic priest who was speaking Spanish, they thought that his language meant that he was Jewish.^[29]

In the 20th century, the number of speakers declined sharply: entire communities were murdered in the Holocaust, and the remaining speakers, many of whom emigrated to Israel, adopted Hebrew. The governments of the new nation-states encouraged instruction in the official languages. At the same time, Judaeo-Spanish aroused the interest of philologists, as it conserved language and literature from before the standardisation of Spanish.

Judaeo-Spanish is in a serious danger of extinction because many native speakers today are elderly olim (immigrants to Israel), who have not transmitted the language to their children or grandchildren. Nevertheless, it is experiencing a minor revival among Sephardic communities, especially in music. In addition, Sephardic communities in several Latin American countries still use Judaeo-Spanish. There, an additional danger is assimilation to modern Spanish.

Kol Yisrael^[30] and Radio Nacional de España^[31] hold regular radio broadcasts in Judaeo-Spanish. Law & Order: Criminal Intent showed an episode, titled "A Murderer Among Us", with references to the language. Films partially or totally in Judaeo-Spanish include Mexican film Novia que te vea (directed by Guita Schyfter), The House on Chelouche Street, and Every Time We Say Goodbye.

Efforts have been made to gather and publish modern Judaeo-Spanish fables and folktales. In 2001, the Jewish Publication Society published the first English translation of Judaeo-Spanish folktales, collected by Matilda Koén-Sarano, Folktales of Joha, Jewish Trickster: The Misadventures of the Guileful Sephardic Prankster. A survivor of Auschwitz, Moshe Ha'elyon, issued his translation into Ladino of the ancient Greek epic The Odyssey in 2012, in his 87th year, and he is now translating the sister epic, the Iliad, into his mother tongue.^[32]

The language was initially spoken by the Sephardic Jewish community in India, but was later replaced with Judeo-Malayalam.

Literature

The earliest Judaeo-Spanish books were religious in nature, mostly created to maintain religious knowledge for exiles who could not read Hebrew; the first of the known texts is Dinim de shehitah i bedikah (The Rules of Ritual Slaughter and Inspection of Animals; Istanbul, 1510).^[33] Texts continued to be focussed on philosophical and religious themes, including a large body of rabbinic writings, until the first half of the 19th century. The largest output of secular Judaeo-Spanish literature occurred during the latter half of the 19th and the early 20th centuries in the Ottoman Empire. The earliest and most abundant form of secular text was the periodical press: between 1845 and 1939, Ottoman Sephardim published around 300 individual periodical titles.^[34] The proliferation of periodicals gave rise to serialised novels: many of them were rewrites of existing foreign novels into Judaeo-Spanish. Unlike the previous scholarly literature, they were intended for a broader audience of educated men and less-educated women alike. They covered a wider range of less weighty content, at times censored to be appropriate for family readings.^[35] Popular literature expanded to include love stories and adventure stories, both of which had been absent from Judaeo-Spanish literary canon.^[36] The literary corpus mesnwhile also expanded to include theatrical plays, poems and other minor genres.

Religious use

The Jewish communities of Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Belgrade, Serbia, still chant part of the Sabbath Prayers (Mizmor David) in Judaeo-Spanish. The Sephardic Synagogue Ezra Bessaroth in Seattle, Washington, United States, was formed by Jews from Turkey and the Greek island of Rhodes, and it uses the language in some portions of its Shabbat services. The Siddur is called Zehut Yosef and was written by Hazzan Isaac Azose.

At Congregation Etz Ahaim of Highland Park, New Jersey,^[37] a congregation founded by Sephardic Jews from Salonika, a reader chants the Aramaic prayer B'rikh Shemay in Judaeo-Spanish before he takes out the Torah on Shabbat. That is known as Bendichu su Nombre in Judaeo-Spanish. Additionally, at the end of Shabbat services, the entire congregation sings the well-known Hebrew hymn Ein Keloheinu, which is Non Como Muestro Dio in Judaeo-Spanish.

Non Como Muestro Dio is also included, alongside Ein Keloheinu, in Mishkan T'filah, the 2007 Reform prayerbook.^[38]

Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan translated some scholarly religious texts, including Me'am Loez into Hebrew, English or both.^[39][40]

Izmir's grand rabbis Haim Palachi, Abraham Palacci, and Rahamim Nissim Palacci all wrote in the language and in Hebrew.

Modern education and use

As with Yiddish,^[41][42] Judaeo-Spanish is seeing a minor resurgence in educational interest in colleges across the United States and in Israel.^[43] Almost all American Jews are Ashkenazi, with a tradition based on Yiddish, rather than Judaeo-Spanish, and so institutions that offer Yiddish are more common. As of 2011^[update] the University of Pennsylvania^[44][45] and Tufts University^[46] offered Judaeo-Spanish courses among colleges in the United States.^[47] In Israel, Moshe David Gaon Center for Ladino Culture at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev is leading the way in education (language and literature courses, Community oriented activities) and research (a yearly scientific journal, international congresses and conferences etc.). Hebrew University also offers courses.^[48] The Complutense University of Madrid also used to have courses.^[49] Prof. David Bunis taught Ladino at the University of Washington, in Seattle during the 2013–14 academic year.^[50]

In Spain, the Spanish Royal Academy (RAE) in 2017 announced plans to create a Judaeo-Spanish branch in Israel in addition to 23 existing academies, in various Spanish-speaking countries, that are associated in the Association of Spanish Language Academies. Its stated purpose is to preserve Judaeo-Spanish. The move was seen as another step to make up for the Expulsion, following the offer of Spanish citizenship to Sephardim who had some connection with Spain.^[8]

Samples

Comparison with other languages

Note: Judaeo-Spanish samples in this section are generally written in the Aki Yerushalayim orthography unless otherwise specified.

Songs

Folklorists have been collecting romances and other folk songs, some dating from before the expulsion. Many religious songs in Judeo-Spanish are translations of Hebrew, usually with a different tune. For example, here is Ein Keloheinu in Judeo-Spanish:

Non komo muestro Dio,

Non komo muestro Sinyor,

Non komo muestro Rey,

Non komo muestro Salvador.

etc.

Other songs relate to secular themes such as love:

Anachronistically, Abraham—who in the Bible is the very first Hebrew and the ancestor of all who followed, hence his appellation "Avinu" (Our Father)—is in the Judeo-Spanish song born already in the "djudería" (modern Spanish: judería), the Jewish quarter. This makes Terach and his wife into Hebrews, as are the parents of other babies killed by Nimrod. In essence, unlike its Biblical model, the song is about a Hebrew community persecuted by a cruel king and witnessing the birth of a miraculous saviour—a subject of obvious interest and attraction to the Jewish people who composed and sang it in Medieval Spain.

The song attributes to Abraham elements that are from the story of Moses's birth, the cruel king killing innocent babies, with the midwives ordered to kill them, the 'holy light' in the Jewish area, as well as from the careers of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego who emerged unscathed from the fiery furnace. Nimrod is thus made to conflate the role and attributes of two archetypal cruel and persecuting kings:Nebuchadnezzar and Pharaoh.

Selected words by origin

Words derived from Arabic:

• 
  Alforría – "liberty", "freedom"


• 
  Alhát – "Sunday"


• 
  Atemar – to terminate


• 
  Saraf – "money changer"


• 
  Shara – "wood"


• 
  Ziara – "cemetery visit"

Words derived from Hebrew:

• 
  Alefbet – "alphabet" (from the Hebrew names of the first two letters of the alphabet)


• 
  Anav – "humble", "obedient"


• 
  Arón – "grave"


• 
  Atakanear – to arrange


• 
  Badkar – to reconsider


• 
  Beraxa – "blessing"


• 
  Din – "religious law"


• 
  Kal – "community", "synagogue"


• 
  Kamma – to ask "how much?", "how many?"


• 
  Maaráv – "west"


• 
  Maasé – "story", "event"


• 
  Maabe – "deluge", "downpour", "torrent"


• 
  Mazal – "star", "destiny"


• 
  Met – "dead"


• 
  Niftar – "dead"


• 
  Purimlik – "Purim present" (Derived from the Hebrew "Purim" + Turkic ending "-lik")


• 
  Sedaka – "charity"


• 
  Tefilá – "prayer"


• 
  Zahut – "blessing"

Words derived from Persian:

• 
  Chay – "tea"


• 
  Chini – "plate"


• 
  Paras – "money"


• 
  Shasheo – "dizziness"

Words derived from Portuguese:

• 
  Abastádo – "almighty", "omnipotent" (referring to God)


• 
  Aínda – "yet"


• 
  Chapeo – "hat"


• 
  Preto – "black" (in color)


• 
  Trocar – to change

Words derived from Turkish:

• 
  Balta – "axe"


• 
  Biterear – to terminate


• 
  Boyadear – to paint, color


• 
  Innat – "whim"


• 
  Kolay – "easy"


• 
  Kushak – "belt", "girdle"


• 
  Maalé – "street", "quarters", "neighbourhood"; Maalé yahudí – Jewish quarters

Modern singers

Jennifer Charles and Oren Bloedow from the New York-based band Elysian Fields released a CD in 2001 called La Mar Enfortuna, which featured modern versions of traditional Sephardic songs, many sung by Charles in Judeo-Spanish. The American singer Tanja Solnik has released several award-winning albums that feature songs in the languages: From Generation to Generation: A Legacy of Lullabies and Lullabies and Love Songs. There are a number of groups in Turkey that sing in Judeo-Spanish, notably Janet – Jak Esim Ensemble, Sefarad, Los Pasharos Sefaradis and the children's chorus Las Estreyikas d'Estambol. There is a Brazilian-born singer of Sephardic origins,^{[citation needed]}Fortuna, who researches and plays Judeo-Spanish music.

Israeli folk-duo Esther & Abi Ofarim recorded the song 'Yo M'enamori d'un Aire' for their 1968 album 'Up To Date', and Esther recorded several Ladino songs as a solo artist. These included 'Povereta Muchachica', 'Noches Noches', El Rey Nimrod', 'Adio Querida' & 'Pampaparapam'
^[51]

The Jewish Bosnian-American musician Flory Jagoda recorded two CDs of music taught to her by her grandmother, a Sephardic folk singer, among a larger discography.

The cantor Dr. Ramón Tasat, who learned Judeo-Spanish at his grandmother's knee in Buenos Aires, has recorded many songs in the language, with three of his CDs focusing primarily on that music.

The Israeli singer Yasmin Levy has also brought a new interpretation to the traditional songs by incorporating more "modern" sounds of Andalusian Flamenco. Her work revitalising Sephardi music has earned Levy the Anna Lindh Euro-Mediterranean Foundation Award for promoting cross-cultural dialogue between musicians from three cultures:^[52] In Yasmin Levy's own words:

I am proud to combine the two cultures of Ladino and flamenco, while mixing in Middle Eastern influences. I am embarking on a 500 years old musical journey, taking Ladino to Andalusia and mixing it with flamenco, the style that still bears the musical memories of the old Moorish and Jewish-Spanish world with the sound of the Arab world. In a way it is a ‘musical reconciliation’ of history.^[53]

Notable music groups performing in Judeo-Spanish include Voice of the Turtle, Oren Bloedow and Jennifer Charles' "La Mar Enfortuna" and Vanya Green, who was awarded a Fulbright Fellowship for her research and performance of this music. She was recently selected as one of the top ten world music artists by the We are Listening International World of Music Awards for her interpretations of the music.

Robin Greenstein, a New York-based musician, received a federal CETA grant in the 1980s to collect and perform Sephardic Ladino Music under the guidance of the American Jewish Congress. Her mentor was Joe Elias, noted Sephardic singer from Brooklyn. She recorded residents of the Sephardic Home for the Aged, a nursing home in Coney Island, New York, singing songs from their childhood. The voices recorded included Victoria Hazan, a well known Sephardic singer who recorded many 78's in Judaeo-Spanish and Turkish from the 1930s and 1940s. Two Judaeo-Spanish songs can be found on her "Songs of the Season" holiday CD, released in 2010 on Windy Records.

German band In Extremo also recorded a version of the above-mentioned song Avram Avinu.

See also

• 
  Aki Yerushalayim, an Israeli magazine in Judaeo-Spanish published 2–3 times a year


• Haketia


• Jewish languages


• Judaism


• Judaeo-Spanish Wikipedia


• Judaeo-Portuguese


• Judaeo-Romance languages


• Matilda Koen-Sarano


• Mozarabic language


• 
  Şalom, a Turkish newspaper with a Judaeo-Spanish page^[54]
  


• Sephardi Jews


• Tetuani Ladino


• Knaanic language


• Yiddish


• 
  Los Serenos Sefarad, Judaeo-Spanish hip-hop


• Cicurel family


• Pallache family


• History of the Jews in Bosnia and Herzegovina


• Laura Papo Bohoreta

References

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

• Barton, Thomas Immanuel (Toivi Cook) (2010) Judezmo Expressions. USA
  ISBN 978-89-00-35754-7
  


• Barton, Thomas Immanuel (Toivi Cook) (2008) Judezmo (Judeo-Castilian) Dictionary. USA
  ISBN 978-1-890035-73-0
  


• 
  Bunis, David M. (1999) Judezmo: an introduction to the language of the Sephardic Jews of the Ottoman Empire. Jerusalem
  ISBN 978-965-493-024-6
  


• Габинский, Марк А. (1992) Сефардский (еврейской-испанский) язык (M. A. Gabinsky. Sephardic (Judeo-Spanish) language, in Russian). Chişinău: Ştiinţa


• Harris, Tracy. 1994. Death of a language: The history of Judeo-Spanish. Newark, DE: University of Delaware Press.


• Hemsi, Alberto (1995) Cancionero Sefardí; edited and with an introduction by Edwin Seroussi (Yuval Music Series; 4.) Jerusaelem: The Jewish Music Research Centre, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem


• Hualde, José Ignacio and Mahir Saul (2011) "Istanbul Judeo-Spanish" Journal of the International Phonetic Association 41(1): 89-110.


• Hualde, José Ignacio (2013) “Intervocalic lenition and word-boundary effects: Evidence from Judeo-Spanish”. Diachronica 30.2: 232-26.


• Kohen, Elli; Kohen-Gordon, Dahlia (2000) Ladino-English, English-Ladino: concise encyclopedic dictionary. New York: Hippocrene Books


• Markova, Alla (2008) Beginner's Ladino with 2 Audio CDs. New York: Hippocrene Books
  ISBN 0-7818-1225-9
  


• Markus, Shimon (1965) Ha-safa ha-sefaradit-yehudit (The Judeo-Spanish language, in Hebrew). Jerusalem


• Minervini, Laura (1999) “The Formation of the Judeo-Spanish koiné: Dialect Convergence in the Sixteenth Century”. In Proceedings of the Tenth British Conference on Judeo-Spanish Studies. Edited by Annete Benaim, 41-52. London: Queen Mary and Westfield College.


• Minervini, Laura (2006) “El desarollo histórico del judeoespañol,” Revista Internacional de Lingüística Iberoamericana 4.2: 13-34.


• Molho, Michael (1950) Usos y costumbres de los judíos de Salónica
  


• Quintana Rodriguez, Aldina. 2001. Concomitancias lingüisticas entre el aragones y el ladino (judeoespañol). Archivo de Filología Aragonesa 57–58, 163–192.


• Quintana Rodriguez, Aldina. 2006. Geografía lingüistica del judeoespañol: Estudio sincrónico y diacrónico. Bern: Peter Lang.


• Varol, Marie-Christine (2004) Manuel de Judéo-Espagnol, langue et culture (book & CD, in French), Paris: L'Asiathèque
  ISBN 2-911053-86-9
  

Further reading

• Lleal, Coloma (1992) "A propósito de una denominación: el judeoespañol", available at Centro Virtual Cervantes, http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/FichaObra.html?Ref=19944
  


• Saporta y Beja, Enrique, comp. (1978) Refranes de los judíos sefardíes y otras locuciones típicas de Salónica y otros sitios de Oriente. Barcelona: Ameller

External links

Ladino edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Judaeo-Spanish test of Wiktionary at Wikimedia Incubator

• 
  Judaeo-Spanish at Curlie
  


• 
  Autoridad Nasionala del Ladino (in Ladino)
  


• Ladino


• Jewish Museum of Thessaloniki


• Ladino Center


• 
  Ladinokomunita, an email list in Ladino
  


• La pajina djudeo-espanyola de Aki Yerushalayim


• The Ladino Alphabet


• Judeo-Spanish (Ladino) at Orbis Latinus


• 
  Ladino music by Suzy and Margalit Matitiahu
  


• 
  Socolovsky, Jerome. "Lost Language of Ladino Revived in Spain", Morning Edition, National Public Radio, 19 March 2007.


• A randomly selected example of use of ladino on the Worldwide Web: La komponente kulinaria i linguístika turka en la kuzina djudeo-espanyola


• Israeli Ladino Language Forum (Hebrew)


• LadinoType – A Ladino Transliteration System for Solitreo, Meruba, and Rashi


• 
  Habla Ladino? Sephardim meet to preserve language Friday 9 January 1998


• Edición SEFARAD, Radio programme in Ladino from Radio Nacional de España


• 
  Etext of Nebrija's Gramática de la lengua castellana, showing orthography of Old Spanish.


• 
  Sefarad, Revista de Estudios Hebraicos, Sefardíes y de Oriente Próximo, ILC, CSIC
  


• Judæo-Spanish Language (Ladino) and Literature, Jewish Encyclopedia


• Dr Yitshak (Itzik) Levy An authentic documentation of Ladino heritage and culture
  


• Sephardic Studies Digital Library & Museum – UW Stroum Jewish Studies
  
  • 
    “Ladino” or not “Ladino”?, David M. Bunis.
  
  


• 
  An inside look into the Portuguese corpus of words in Nehama's Dictionnaire du Judeo-Espagnol Yossi Gur, 2003.